Features
Representatives of modernism are above all TS Eliot, an American poet and critic who has lived for most of his life in Britain, which is the theorist of the movement; and in prose, James Joyce. Other prominent figures are Vladimir Nabokov, William Faulkner, Francis Scott Fitzgerald, Virginia Woolf, Ernest Hemingway, Joseph Conrad, Ezra Pound, Ford Madox Ford, Henry Roth, Wyndham Lewis (who is also an important painter), Laura Riding, Hilda Doolittle isGertrude Stein.
This movement has affinity with the work of non-Anglo-Saxon writers such as, in Italy, Italo Svevo, Luigi Pirandello and Carlo Emilio Gadda, in France, Louis-Ferdinand Céline and Albert Camus, or, in Czechoslovakia, Franz Kafka.
Modernism is contemporary with the various European avant - garde art of the early 1900s (such as futurism, Dadaism, cubism, surrealism, abstractionism and others). Its features are:
Search for new narrative / poetic techniques that renew the romance / nineteenth-century poetry of romantic derivation;
Attention to mythology, anthropology, the history of religions;
The artist's detachment from the work, which should not be an expression of the artist's interiority, but rather a perfectly objectified and self-sufficient creation;
Refusal of the vague and suggestive language of the romantics, the need for a precise and objective language that also draws on the spoken language;
(In poetry) repudiation of the model constituted by the work of John Milton, recovery of Baroque poetry (metaphysical poets, John Donne), creation of compositions in multiple languages;
Extended use of symbols, also of psychoanalytic derivation;
Treatment of previously taboo subjects (eg sexuality);
(In narrative) extensive use of techniques such as flashbacks, flash-forward, even extended and / or undeclared quotes, non-linear plots, deliberate omissions of information for the reader.
Origins and precursors
In the 1880s increased attention was given to the idea that it was necessary to push aside previous norms entirely, instead of merely revising past knowledge in light of contemporary techniques. The theories of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), and Ernst Mach (1838–1916) influenced early Modernist literature. Ernst Mach argued that the mind had a fundamental structure, and that subjective experience was based on the interplay of parts of the mind in The Science of Mechanics (1883). Freud's first major work was Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer) (1895). According to Freud, all subjective reality was based on the play of basic drives and instincts, through which the outside world was perceived. As a philosopher of science, Ernst Mach was a major influence on logical positivism, and through his criticism of Isaac Newton, a forerunner of Einstein's theory of relativity.
Many prior theories about epistemology argued that external and absolute reality could impress itself, as it were, on an individual, as, for example, John Locke's (1632–1704) empiricism, which saw the mind beginning as a tabula rasa, a blank slate (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690). Freud's description of subjective states, involving an unconscious mind full of primal impulses and counterbalancing self-imposed restrictions, was combined by Carl Jung (1875–1961) with the idea of the collective unconscious, which the conscious mind either fought or embraced. While Charles Darwin's work remade the Aristotelian concept of "man, the animal" in the public mind, Jung suggested that human impulses toward breaking social norms were not the product of childishness or ignorance, but rather derived from the essential nature of the human animal.
Another major precursor of modernism was Friedrich Nietzsche, especially his idea that psychological drives, specifically the "will to power", were more important than facts, or things. Henri Bergson (1859–1941), on the other hand, emphasized the difference between scientific clock time and the direct, subjective, human experience of time. His work on time and consciousness "had a great influence on twentieth-century novelists," especially those modernists who used the stream of consciousness technique, such as Dorothy Richardson for the book Pointed Roofs (1915), James Joyce for Ulysses (1922) and Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) for Mrs Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927). Also important in Bergson's philosophy was the idea of élan vital, the life force, which "brings about the creative evolution of everything." His philosophy also placed a high value on intuition, though without rejecting the importance of the intellect. These various thinkers were united by a distrust of Victorian positivism and certainty. Modernism as a literary movement can also be seen as a reaction to industrialization, urbanization and new technologies.
Important literary precursors of modernism were Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–81) (Crime and Punishment (1866), The Brothers Karamazov (1880)); Walt Whitman (1819–92) (Leaves of Grass) (1855–91); Charles Baudelaire (1821–67) (Les Fleurs du mal), Rimbaud (1854–91) (Illuminations, 1874); August Strindberg (1849–1912), especially his later plays, including the trilogy To Damascus 1898–1901, A Dream Play (1902), The Ghost Sonata (1907).
Initially, some modernists fostered a utopian spirit, stimulated by innovations in anthropology, psychology, philosophy, political theory, physics and psychoanalysis. The poets of the Imagist movement, founded by Ezra Pound in 1912 as a new poetic style, gave modernism its early start in the 20th century, and were characterized by a poetry that favoured a precision of imagery, brevity and free verse. This idealism, however, ended with the outbreak of World War I, and writers created more cynical works that reflected a prevailing sense of disillusionment. Many modernist writers also shared a mistrust of institutions of power such as government and religion, and rejected the notion of absolute truths.
Modernist works such as T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land (1922) were increasingly self-aware, introspective, and explored the darker aspects of human nature.
The term modernism covers a number of related, and overlapping, artistic and literary movements, including Imagism, Symbolism, Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism, Expressionism, and Dada.
Early modernist writers
Early modernist writers, especially those writing after World War I and the disillusionment that followed, broke the implicit contract with the general public that artists were the reliable interpreters and representatives of mainstream ("bourgeois") culture and ideas, and, instead, developed unreliable narrators, exposing the irrationality at the roots of a supposedly rational world.
They also attempted to take into account changing ideas about reality developed by Darwin, Mach, Freud, Einstein, Nietzsche, Bergson and others. From this developed innovative literary techniques such as stream-of-consciousness, interior monologue, as well as the use of multiple points-of-view. This can reflect doubts about the philosophical basis of realism, or alternatively an expansion of our understanding of what is meant by realism. For example, the use of stream-of-consciousness or interior monologue reflects the need for greater psychological realism.
It is debatable when the modernist literary movement began, though some have chosen 1910 as roughly marking the beginning and quote novelist Virginia Woolf, who declared that human nature underwent a fundamental change "on or about December 1910". But modernism was already stirring by 1902, with works such as Joseph Conrad's (1857–1924) Heart of Darkness, while Alfred Jarry's (1873–1907) absurdist play, Ubu Roi appeared even earlier, in 1896.
Among early modernist non-literary landmarks is the atonal ending of Arnold Schoenberg's Second String Quartet in 1908, the Expressionist paintings of Wassily Kandinsky starting in 1903 and culminating with his first abstract painting and the founding of the Expressionist Blue Rider group in Munich in 1911, the rise of fauvism, and the introduction of cubism from the studios of Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and others between 1900 and 1910.
Sherwood Anderson's Winesburg, Ohio (1919) is known as an early work of modernism for its plain-spoken prose style and emphasis on psychological insight into characters.
James Joyce was a major modernist writer whose strategies employed in his novel Ulysses (1922) for depicting the events during a twenty-four-hour period in the life of his protagonist, Leopold Bloom, have come to epitomize modernism's approach to fiction. The poet T.S. Eliot described these qualities in 1923, noting that Joyce's technique is "a way of controlling, of ordering, of giving a shape and a significance to the immense panorama of futility and anarchy which is contemporary history.... Instead of narrative method, we may now use the mythical method. It is, I seriously believe, a step toward making the modern world possible for art." Eliot's own modernist poem The Waste Land (1922) mirrors "the futility and anarchy" in its own way, in its fragmented structure, and the absence of an obvious central, unifying narrative. This is in fact a rhetorical technique to convey the poem's theme: "The decay and fragmentation of Western Culture". The poem, despite the absence of a linear narrative, does have a structure: this is provided by both fertility symbolism derived from anthropology, and other elements such as the use of quotations and juxtaposition.
Modernist literature addressed similar aesthetic problems as contemporary modernist art. Gertrude Stein's abstract writings, for example, have been compared to the fragmentary and multi-perspective Cubist paintings of her friend Pablo Picasso. The questioning spirit of modernism, as part of a necessary search for ways to make sense of a broken world, can also be seen in a different form in the Scottish poet Hugh MacDiarmid's A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle (1928). In this poem, MacDiarmid applies Eliot's techniques to respond to the question of nationalism, using comedic parody, in an optimistic (though no less hopeless) form of modernism in which the artist as "hero" seeks to embrace complexity and locate new meanings.
Other early modernist writers and selected works include:
Knut Hamsun (1859–1952): Hunger (1890);
Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936): The Late Mattia Pascal (1904), Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921);
Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926): The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge (1910), Sonnets to Orpheus (1922), Duino Elegies (1922);
Guillaume Apollinaire (1880–1918): Alcools (1913);
Andrei Bely (1880–1934): Petersburg (1913);
Georg Trakl (1887–1914): Poems (1913);
Franz Kafka (1883–1924): The Metamorphosis (1915), The Trial (1925), The Castle (1926);
Konstantine Gamsakhurdia (1893–1975):The Smile of Dionysus (1925), Kidnapping the Moon (1935—1936), The Right Hand of the Grand Master (1939);
Grigol Robakidze (1880–1962): The Snake's Skin (1926);
Miroslav Krleža (1893–1981), Kristofor Kolumbo (1918), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1919), Povratak Filipa Latinovicza (1932);
Wyndham Lewis (1882–1957): Tarr (1918);
Hope Mirrlees (1887–1978): Paris (1919);
Karel Čapek (1890–1938): R.U.R. (1920);
Italo Svevo (1861–1928): Zeno's Conscience (1923);
Ryūnosuke Akutagawa (1861–1928): "Hana" (1916); "Rashōmon " (1915); "In a Grove" (1922);
André Gide: Les faux-monnayeurs (1925)
Continuation: 1920s and 1930s
Significant modernist works continued to be created in the 1920s and 1930s, including further novels by Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf, Robert Musil ('Man without qualities'), and Dorothy Richardson. The American modernist dramatist Eugene O'Neill's career began in 1914, but his major works appeared in the 1920s and 1930s and early 1940s. Two other significant modernist dramatists writing in the 1920s and 1930s were Bertolt Brecht and Federico García Lorca. D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover was published in 1928, while another important landmark for the history of the modern novel came with the publication of William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury in 1929. In the 1930s, in addition to further major works by Faulkner (As I Lay Dying, Light in August), Samuel Beckett published his first major work, the novel Murphy (1938), while in 1932 John Cowper Powys published A Glastonbury Romance, the same year as Hermann Broch's The Sleepwalker. One of greatest achievement in modernist poetry is then followed by Miroslav Krleža's Ballads of Petrica Kerempuh in 1936. Then in 1939 James Joyce's Finnegans Wake appeared. It was in this year that another Irish modernist, W. B. Yeats, died. In poetry T. S. Eliot, E. E. Cummings, and Wallace Stevens continued writing from the 1920s until the 1950s. While modernist poetry in English is often viewed as an American phenomenon, with leading exponents including Ezra Pound, Hart Crane, Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, H.D., and Louis Zukofsky, there were important British modernist poets, including T.S. Eliot, David Jones, Hugh MacDiarmid, Basil Bunting, and W. H. Auden. European modernist poets include Federico García Lorca, Fernando Pessoa, Anna Akhmatova, Constantine Cavafy, and Paul Valéry.
Modernist literature after 1939
Though The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature sees Modernism ending by c.1939, with regard to British and American literature, "When (if) Modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to Modernism occurred". Clement Greenberg sees Modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts. In fact, many literary modernists lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally speaking they were no longer producing major works.
Late Modernism
The term late modernism is sometimes applied to modernist works published after 1930. Among modernists (or late modernists) still publishing after 1945 were Wallace Stevens, Gottfried Benn, T. S. Eliot, Anna Akhmatova, William Faulkner, Dorothy Richardson, John Cowper Powys, and Ezra Pound. Basil Bunting, born in 1901, published his most important modernist poem Briggflatts in 1965. In addition Hermann Broch's The Death of Virgil was published in 1945 and Thomas Mann's Doctor Faustus in 1947 (early works by Thomas Mann, The Magic Mountain (1924), and Death in Venice (1912) are sometimes considered modernist). Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a "later modernist". Beckett is a writer with roots in the expressionist tradition of modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until the 1980s, including Molloy (1951), En attendant Godot (1953), Happy Days (1961) and Rockaby (1981). The terms minimalist and post-modernist have also been applied to his later works. The poets Charles Olson (1910–1970) and J. H. Prynne (b. 1936) have been described as late modernists.
More recently the term late modernism has been redefined by at least one critic and used to refer to works written after 1945, rather than 1930. With this usage goes the idea that the ideology of modernism was significantly re-shaped by the events of World War II, especially the Holocaust and the dropping of the atom bomb.
The Scottish writer Ali Smith has been considered by many to be a very late Modernist writer.
Theatre of the Absurd
The term Theatre of the Absurd is applied to plays written by primarily European playwrights, that express the belief that human existence has no meaning or purpose and therefore all communication breaks down. Logical construction and argument gives way to irrational and illogical speech and to its ultimate conclusion, silence. While there are significant precursors, including Alfred Jarry (1873–1907), the Theatre of the Absurd is generally seen as beginning in the 1950s with the plays of Samuel Beckett.
Critic Martin Esslin coined the term in his 1960 essay, "Theatre of the Absurd." He related these plays based on a broad theme of the Absurd, similar to the way Albert Camus uses the term in his 1942 essay, "The Myth of Sisyphus". The Absurd in these plays takes the form of man’s reaction to a world apparently without meaning, and/or man as a puppet controlled or menaced by invisible outside forces. Though the term is applied to a wide range of plays, some characteristics coincide in many of the plays: broad comedy, often similar to Vaudeville, mixed with horrific or tragic images; characters caught in hopeless situations forced to do repetitive or meaningless actions; dialogue full of clichés, wordplay, and nonsense; plots that are cyclical or absurdly expansive; either a parody or dismissal of realism and the concept of the "well-made play".
Playwrights commonly associated with the Theatre of the Absurd include Samuel Beckett (1906–1989), Eugène Ionesco (1909–1994), Jean Genet (1910–1986), Harold Pinter (1930–2008), Tom Stoppard (b. 1937), Alexander Vvedensky (1904–1941), Daniil Kharms (1905–1942), Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–1990), Alejandro Jodorowsky (b. 1929), Fernando Arrabal (b. 1932), Václav Havel (1936–2011) and Edward Albee (1928–2016).
The modernist poetry
As indicated above, modernist poetry appears more or less at the same time as the magazine Poetry, which publishes most of the poets of this era and pays special attention to the most innovative. The imagery, one of the first modernist movements in the English-speaking countries, was initially led by the English T. E. Hulme and the American Ezra Pound, and began around 1910. The main characteristics of the imagery are the use of a simple discourse, the preference for free verseand the creation of vivid and original images, hence its name. These trends had a great impact and spread to other modernist movements. Imaginism finds its inspiration also in Asian verses such as Haiku and Tanka. Poets associated with the imaginary movement are HD, Richard Aldington and John Gould Fletcher, whose works have been published in several anthologies, such as Some Imagist Poets (1917).
Around 1913, Pound dissociated himself from imagism and proposed the name of Vorticism for a movement, led by the painter and writer Wyndham Lewis, who mixed literature and visual arts. Vorticism is closely linked to the Futurism of Marinetti, and its most prominent features is the daily Blast, which published only two numbers. In the vorticist painting modern life is shown as a disposition of marked lines and discontinuous colors that attracts the gaze of the spectator to the center of the canvas. The word derives from the term vortex, and tries to express the whirlpool or place where emotions are born. In the second and last Blast numberthe allegiance of the Vorticists to England in the fight against fascism was declared, and it was announced that one of their leaders, Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, had died in the trenches. This statement marked a turn in English modernism.
The work that would mark a milestone in the poetry of the beginning of the century is The Waste Land (1922) by TS Eliot, which, according to his contemporaries, was able to capture brilliantly the pessimism of the time and the "disillusionment of a generation". 3 The Waste Land (The Waste Land in English), is a strange text consisting of several fragments, some of them written in other languages (at least seven Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, French, German, etc.), that mixes at the same time different styles, metrics and rhymes, with frequent discontinuities, juxtapositions and cultural and literary references from different countries and sources.
Another poet, although later, is WH Auden, known as the enfant terrible of the modernist lyric. His poetic voice, more accessible, comes in significant contrast to the darker Eliot. Critics like Samuel Hynes have spoken of an "Auden generation" (The Auden Generation (1972), and of the influence of this poet in others, among which is the Welshman Dylan Thomas.
Narrative
The modernist narrative I, European writers
Two names emerge immediately in this chapter: James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. The second is one of the key figures of the Bloomsbury Circle, which has its origin in the friendships forged by some of its male components at the University of Cambridge, which began to meet at the home of the Stephen (maiden name of Virginia Woolf), in London's Gordon Square. Although the components of this group also included other intellectuals, the writers were: Lytton Strachey, EM Forster, Virginia Woolf, and her husband, Leonard Woolf. There is no common theme to the Bloomsbury circle, perhaps excluding tolerance to agnosticism, opposition to war, a free sexuality and the foresight of the dismantling of the British colonial empire. Its members worked independently, so, for example, Virginia Woolf developed feminist essays, and novels that explored the inner world of the protagonists through the technique of interior monologue (Stream of Conciousness), such as Al Faro or Mrs. Dalloway. While her husband, Leonard Woolf, Clive Bell and EM Forsterthey focused on political writings, class struggle and anti-imperialist dye writings. Among the latter, it is worth mentioning Passage to India, by EM Forster, which shows the racial tension in India at the time prior to the dismantling of the British Raj. More controversially, DH Lawrence was first a protege of Bloomsbury, from whom he later dissociated. Lawrence's novel, like that of Forster, shows a more open sexuality than that of many of his contemporaries and predecessors, also touching other issues such as the class struggle, as seen in his works Lady Chatterley's Lover and the autobiographical Children and lovers.
James Joyce is considered, along with Marcel Proust and Virginia Woolf, as one of the key figures in the development of the modernist novel. His novel Ulises tells the experiences and thoughts of its protagonist, Leopold Bloom, in Dublin, during a single day, any day, whose narrative extends over 900 pages (in his Spanish translation). From the title alludes to The Odyssey, with whose parallelism, more or less explicit, plays the whole work. The novel exhibits a plentiful, varied and strongly experimental prose technique that, since its publication, has captivated the attention of a long list of writers and specialized critics.
We can also recognize Samuel Beckett, as part of this movement, being his trilogy (Molloy, Malone dies and The Unnamable (novel) representative examples, being purely experimental novels, with stories and plots narrated only through the internal monologue.
Later on we find the critique of totalitarianism in novels like A Happy World by Aldous Huxley, or 1984, by George Orwell, works that also find a place in Anglo-Saxon modernism.
The Modernist Narrative II, American Writers
The American writers of modernism are those belonging to what has come to be called " Lost Generation ", which reflected the climate of pessimism and bewilderment that followed the First World War. The writers of this generation considered that the cultural landscape of their country was unsatisfactory, that it was dominated by a materialistic culture, and lacked a cosmopolitan culture. 4 Many moved to France, where they were known as the Génération du Feu, or traveled across Europe looking for a more "bohemian" lifestyle.
The war and the great depression also strongly affected these writers. They described the uselessness and cruelty of war, the materialism of the happy twenties, the jazz age, the economic depression and the decline of the American dream.
It is considered that the works of the writers of the Lost Generation, such as The Great Gatsby (F. Scott Fitzgerald), Fiesta (Ernest Hemingway), or Sound and Fury (William Faulkner) are among the best in American literature. In addition to those cited, other authors of the Lost Generation are: Hart Crane, ee cummings, John Steinbeck, John Dos Passos, Thornton Wilder, Thomas Wolfe, Gertrude Stein, Djuna Barnes, Dashiell Hammett,Raymond Chandler, Henry Miller and Ford Madox Ford
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