Carnelian

Carnelian is a brownish-red mineral commonly used as a semiprecious stone. Carnelian are varieties of the silica mineral chalcedony colored by impurities of iron oxide. The color can vary greatly, ranging from pale orange to an intense almost-black coloration. Significant localities include Yanacodo (Peru); Ratnapura (Sri Lanka); and Thailand. It has been found in Indonesia, Brazil, India, Russia (Siberia), and Germany. In the United States, the official State Gem of Maryland is also a variety of carnelian called Patuxent River stone.

Carnelian

General

Category Tectosilicate minerals, quartz group, chalcedony variety

Formula SiO2 (silicon dioxide)

Crystal system Trigonal (quartz), monoclinic (moganite)

Identification

Formula mass 60 g/mol

Color Reddish, orange, brownish

Cleavage Absent

Fracture Uneven, splintery, conchoidal

Mohs scale hardness 6.5–7.0

Luster Waxy to resinous

Streak White

Diaphaneity Translucent to opaque

Specific gravity 2.58–2.64

Optical properties Uniaxial +

Refractive index 1.535–1.539

Birefringence 0.003–0.009

History

The red variety of chalcedony has been known to be used as beads since the Early Neolithic in Bulgaria. The first faceted (with constant 16+16=32 facets on each side of the bead) carnelian beads are described from the Varna Chalcolithic necropolis (middle of the 5th millennium BC). The bow drill was used to drill holes into carnelian in Mehrgarh in the 4th–5th millennium BC. Carnelian was recovered from Bronze Age Minoan layers at Knossos on Crete in a form that demonstrated its use in decorative arts; this use dates to approximately 1800 BC. Carnelian was used widely during Roman times to make engraved gems for signet or seal rings for imprinting a seal with wax on correspondence or other important documents, as hot wax does not stick to carnelian. Sard was used for Assyrian cylinder seals, Egyptian and Phoenician scarabs, and early Greek and Etruscan gems. The Hebrew odem (also translated as sardius), was the first stone in the High Priest's breastplate, a red stone, probably sard but perhaps red jasper. In Revelation 4:3, the One seated on the heavenly throne seen in the vision of John the Apostle is said to "look like jasper and σαρδίῳ (sardius transliterated)." And likewise it is in Revelation 21:20 as one of the precious stones in the foundations of the wall of the heavenly city.

There is a Neo-Assyrian seal made of carnelian in the Western Asiatic Seals collection of the British Museum that shows Ishtar-Gula as a star goddess. She is holding a ring of royal authority and is seated on a throne. She is shown with the spade of Marduk (his symbol), Sibbiti (seven) gods, the stylus of Nabu and a worshiper. An 8th century BC carnelian seal from the collection of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford shows Ishtar-Gula with her dog facing the spade of Marduk and his red dragon.

Etymology

Although now the more common term, "carnelian" is a 16th-century corruption of the 14th-century word "cornelian" (and its associated orthographies corneline and cornalyn). Cornelian, cognate with similar words in several Romance languages, comes from the Mediaeval Latin corneolus, itself derived from the Latin word cornum, the cornel cherry, whose translucent red fruits resemble the stone. The Oxford English Dictionary calls "carnelian" a perversion of "cornelian," by subsequent analogy with the Latin word caro, carnis ("flesh"). According to Pliny the Elder, sard derived its name from the city of Sardis in Lydia from which it came, and according to others, may ultimately be related to the Persian word سرد (sered, "yellowish-red"). Another possible derivation is from the Greek σάρξ (sarx, "flesh"); compare the surer etymology of onyx, which comes from Greek ὄνυξ (onyx, "claw, fingernail"), presumably because onyx with flesh-colored and white bands can resemble a fingernail.

Color

All shades of red are found, from dark red through flesh and light red to almost pink. Color variations toward yellow-orange and transitions to brown sardonyx are also possible. Solid, striped, spotted, and clouded specimens exist. The most highly prized carnelians are those that appear fiery red when viewed through the stone, but blackish red when viewed on the surface.

Carnelians owe their color to the element iron, which occurs in varying amounts in the form of iron oxide or iron hydroxide. The color is determined accordingly: the oxide of trivalent iron (Fe 2 O 3) colors the stone red, while its hydroxide (Fe(OH) 3) colors it brown. In carnelians from India, the sun's heat, to which the raw stones were exposed, converted the iron hydroxide into iron oxide, thus contributing to the coveted red color.

Carnelians can be permanently transformed to red by heat. It's a complicated and careful art, but one that has been known since ancient times, among the Etruscans and Phrygians, among others.

History

Carnelian was already valued as a gemstone in ancient times and is often found on rings. Well-known examples include:

The Ring of Tello, Iran, c. 2500 BC, now in the Louvre

Phoenician signet ring with scarab depiction, 6th century BC, now in the British Museum

Etruscan signet ring with Poseidon motif, 6th century BC, now in the French National Library in Paris.

In ancient Egypt, carnelian was considered the "stone of life" due to its blood-like color. It therefore played a role in burial rituals and is also mentioned in the Egyptian Book of the Dead. Numerous carnelians were also found in the tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62) in the Valley of the Kings.

The region of Melukha had the Sumerian nickname "Land of Carnelian." In Genesis of the Bible, carnelian stones are mentioned in connection with the location of the Garden of Eden. Israelite high priests wore them on their garments.

The Cyprus Museum in Nicosia possesses two necklaces made of carnelian beads and tooth-shaped shells that were found on the skeletons of women buried at the Khirokitia archaeological site in the south of the island. The necklaces are dated to 3,500 to 3,000 BC. The carnelian used must have been imported from the mainland, as it does not occur on the island. Excavations in Troy, which dates back to 5,000 years ago, also unearthed carnelian jewelry. During the Roman Imperial period (0–375), carnelian was, along with glass, the most common material used to make cameos. They were often part of a ring that was also used for sealing. Lucky and protective symbols or protective deities were usually carved into the cameos. The rings of ordinary soldiers were made of iron, while those of knightly officers were made of gold. India was the most important source of carnelian. At Kalkriese near Osnabrück, the probable site of the Varus Battle (9 AD), an iron ring with a carnelian gem was found, showing a double cornucopia with the heraldic staff of Mercury.

In late Roman times, carnelian beads were found primarily in the eastern provinces. They occur only sporadically in the northern Alpine region, including in Pfyn (Ad Fines) and Kaiseraugst (Switzerland). In 2005, 13 beads were discovered in a child's grave from the 11th/12th century near Großschwabhausen in the Weimarer Land district. These beads presumably belonged to a necklace. Four of the beads are made of carnelian.

Because carnelian is easy to work, it was often used as a signet ring. Martin Luther, for example, wore a gold signet ring with a carnelian stone carved with the so-called Luther Rose, Luther's coat of arms. The ring was made around 1530, probably in Augsburg, and is on display in the Green Vault of Dresden Castle.

The former high status of carnelian as a gemstone is impressively demonstrated by the so-called "jewel sets" of Augustus the Strong (1670–1733) and his son, which are also exhibited in the Green Vault of Dresden Castle and form a major part of the Saxon Crown Treasure. Of the nine sets there, the most extensive, with 123 individual pieces, is the "carnelian set." Completed in 1719, it is largely the work of the goldsmith brothers Johann Melchior, Georg Friedrich, and Georg Christoph Dinglinger.

In the Middle Ages, dolls were also made of carnelian, as the color of the stone is closest to the color of human skin. 

In modern times, carnelian experienced a renaissance as a gemstone. Among the most important processing sites are the grinding mills in Idar-Oberstein.

In 1964, Professor Rupprecht bred a new rose variety on behalf of the "Institute for Ornamental Plant Cultivation" in East Berlin and named it after the mineral Carnelian Rose. The "Institute for Fruit Breeding" in Dresden - Pillnitz developed a sour cherry variety, which was recognized in 1990 under the name Carnelian Cherry. 

Deposits

The deposits are located mainly in India, Brazil and Uruguay.

The Garamantes traded in carnelian until their decline.

Use as a gemstone

Carnelian, a variety of chalcedony, has the same Mohs hardness of 6.5 to 7 and is not prone to cleavage. It is therefore well-suited for use as a gemstone and is often used to make rings, necklaces, gems, or even decorative objects such as sculptures.

The play of colors in carnelian is particularly evident in the smooth cut, which is why it is often offered in the form of cabochons or palm stones.

Historical and cultural references

In the Middle Ages, carnelian was sometimes worn in amulets intended to protect against enchantment. Hildegard von Bingen counts it among the most important healing stones; it supposedly helps against bleeding, headaches, coughs, and colds, among other things.

Carnelian is identified in the first book of the Bible.

In Chapter XXI of the Book of Revelation attributed to Saint John, carnelian is one of the precious stones adorning the foundations of the walls of a city in one of the apostle's visions.

In chapter IV of the Book of Revelation attributed to Saint John, it also refers to the aspect of God.

The Book of Hours of Francis I has two large carnelian intaglios on its cover and back cover.

The tale The Red Hammer, taken from Tales of a Grandmother by George Sand, tells the story of a carnelian.

For Marbod of Rennes (1035–1123), Bishop of this city in Brittany, and for Albertus Magnus (1193–1280), the stone not only had the effect of stopping bleeding but also of calming anger. Carnelian was praised as a panacea for character in a 1354 work, the Oeconomia by Konrad von Megenberg:

Whoever is weak but wants to be strong,

who is lukewarm but wants to burn,

who is cowardly but wants to be bold,

who is a servant but wants to be a master,

he always wears a carnelian.

Even in later centuries, carnelian was considered to have a special power, especially for women. The sincere celebrant of 1773 wrote: "Carnelian, worn by men, makes them strangely attractive to women."

Esotericists associate carnelian with the zodiac signs Aries, Taurus, and Scorpio. According to Raphael, it also represents the planet Mars, and according to Uyldert, it represents the planet Jupiter. The writer and poet Theodor Körner assigned carnelian to the month of July in his poem "Die Monatssteine " (The Monthly Stones).

As a healing stone, carnelian is said to be able to cure arthritis, depression, neuralgia, and rheumatism, as well as relieve fever and infections. It is also said to promote vitality. There is no scientific evidence to support this claim.

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