Mongol conquest of Central Asia

The Mongol invasion of Central Asia occurred after the unification of the Mongol and Turkic tribes on the Mongolian plateau in 1206. It was finally complete when Genghis Khan conquered the Khwarizmian Empire in 1221.

Ironically, it was not the intention to invade Corasmia that motivated the conquest. Genghis Khan sent messengers to Emperor Mohamed II of Corasmia, with a message greeting him as his equal. The unification of the Mongolian tribes and other ethnic groups of nomads under the command of Genghis had been carried out relatively small bloodshed. Even the invasion of China had not caused many more deaths compared to the campaigns carried out so far.

It would be the invasion, subsequent destruction and complete devastation of the Corasmi Empire that would mark the Mongols' bloodthirsty fame and all its campaigns carried out since then. In this brief war, which lasted less than two years, it was not only the destruction of a huge empire, but the tactics employed by Genghis that would not be seen until the Germans in World War II - indirect attacks and killings of entire populations as weapons of war.

War with the Karakit Khanate

Carakitaiys, are the remnants of the Khitan dynasty Liao (907-1125) and expelled from China Jurchen dynasty Jin, in the basin of the river Talas and Chu (Seven Rivers) were able to establish their state. The Kara-Khitan state was founded by a relative of the last emperor of the dynasty, Liao Yeluy Dashi. In 1124, the young Yulu Dashi, a scholar, an expert on ancient Chinese poetryWithout waiting for the final defeat of the Iron Empire, he took forty thousand soldiers to the west, settled in Central Asia, from where he planned to strike at the Jurchen and revive the Liao empire in the future, subjugated the fragmented tribes, and conquered Kashgar and Khotan fortresses.

The black Khitan occupied a dominant position in the Central Asian region in the 12th century, inflicting a crushing defeat on the Seljuks of Sultan Sanjar Karakhanids at the Battle of Katwan. However, their empire was soon weakened by constant uprisings and civil wars, which made possible the quick conquest of the Khitan empire in 1211 by the Naimans, led by Khan Kuchluk, with the active support of the karakites of Khorezmshah Muhammad, with whom Kuchluk made an alliance against him.

Kuchluk, hiding from the Mongols of Genghis Khan by that time, received refuge at the court of Gurkhan Zhulkhu and permission to collect the remnants of the army defeated under the Irtysh River, which, however, did not prevent him from usurping the throne, as soon as he got a rather strong army under his arm.

After a short but decisive military campaign, the allies won a lot, and the gurkhan was forced to give up power in favor of an uninvited guest. In 1213, the gurkhan Zhulhu died, and the Naiman khan became the sovereign ruler of the Seven Rivers. Having become an implacable opponent of Khorezm, Kuchluk began persecuting Muslims in his possessions, which caused hatred of the settled population of Zhetysu. Karluk khan Arslan khan, and then the ruler Almalyk Buzar moved away from the Naimans and declared themselves subjects of Genghis Khan.

The Naiman prince made several campaigns against Buzar, then he submitted to Genghis Khan in search of help. During the hunt Buzar was captured by Kuchluk, who then unsuccessfully besieged Almalyk. In response, the vassals of Genghis Khan turned to him for help. In 1216, Genghis Khan sent a 20 thousandth detachment led by Jebe to punish the fugitive Naiman khan. In connection with the approach of the Mongolian detachment, Kuchluk lifted the siege of the city, killed Buzar and returned to Kashgar.

The Mongols conquered the Semirechye and East Turkestan, which Kuchluk owned. In the very first battle, Jebe defeated the Naimans. The Mongols allowed Muslims public worship, previously prohibited by the Naimans, which contributed to the transition of the entire settled population to the side of the Mongols. After the brutal tyranny of Kuchluk, the people of Kashgar, Yarkend and Khotan considered the arrival of the Mongols “one of the mercies of Allah.” The inhabitants of Balasagun opened the gates to the Mongols, for which the city received the name Gobalyk - “a meek city”. Kuchluk, unable to organize resistance, fled to the mountains of the Pamirs, Badakhshan, where he was caught and killed. Before Genghis Khan, a road opened to the borders of Khorezm.

War with Khorezm

Khorezm at the beginning of the XIII century was a large Islamic state of Central Asia. However, the omnipotence of the Kangly and Kipchak nobility, who held leading posts in the administrative and military apparatus, was a vulnerability in the state. Mother of Khorezmshah MohammedTerken-Khatun came from the Kipchak ruling family, and according to another version, she was from the Kangla and had great influence at the court, actually appointing her relatives to all key government posts. Taking advantage of their support, she actually led the opposition to her son. Their relations especially aggravated before the Mongol invasion. Significant garrisons were located in all major cities of Khorezm: Samarkand, Bukhara, Otrar. In 1212, the Kangles participated in the suppression of the uprising of Osman's karakhanid in Samarkand.

After defeating Kuchluk and destroying the Karakite state, which threatened the left flank, and subsequently the rear and communications of the Mongolian army in a hypothetical campaign against Khorezm, the Mongolian army, led by Subaedey-Bagatur and Tohuchar-noion, approached the borders of Khorezm and clashed with the troops of Khorezmshah. The right wing of the Khorezm army under the command of the son of Muhammad, Jalal-ad-Din, succeeded on its flank and helped the center and left wing of its army. By nightfall, none of the parties had achieved decisive results. At night, the Mongols made fires and left the scene of the battle.

Background to the conflict

Genghis Khan in 1215 agreed with Khorezm on good neighborly trade relations. Soon after the Embassy of Genghis Khan returned from Khorezm, he sent his first merchants there. It was a large and rich merchant caravan, consisting of 450 Muslim merchants and several dozen Mongol officers. They were captured and killed, accused of spying by Inalchik Kaiyr Khan, ruler of Otrar. This became a convenient pretext for organizing a grand campaign of the Mongolian army. In the fall of 1219, Genghis Khan moved his army from the shores of the Irtysh to the west. In the same year, it invaded Maverannahr.

Enraged, Genghis Khan demanded the extradition of Kaiyr Khan, but the Khorezmshah, fearing the wrath of the Kangly nobility, refused. Instead of fulfilling the requirement, Muhammad beheaded one of the ambassadors of the Mongol khan, and released the rest, having previously cut off his beards.

In the spring of 1219, without ending the conquest of China, Genghis Khan sent troops to the west.

Preparing the parties for war

At the top of the Khorezm nobility, opinions were divided on how to counter the upcoming Mongol invasion. The urgently assembled high state council could not work out a reasonable plan of military operations. The option of a military campaign to meet the Mongolian troops on the north-eastern borders of the state was proposed, but, apparently, was not implemented. Imam Shihab ad-Din Khivaki, an associate of Khorezmshah and the head of the Khafiz’s Shafi’s, proposed gathering a people's militia and meeting the enemy on the shores of the Syr Darya with all military forces. Other plans for military operations were proposed, but the Sultan opted for passive defense tactics.

Khorezmshah and the dignitaries and generals who supported it, underestimating the siege art of the Mongols, relied on the fortress of the cities of Maverannahr. The Shah decided to concentrate his main forces on the Amu Darya, reinforcing them with militias from neighboring provinces. Muhammad and his military leaders, seeding in the fortresses, hoped to attack the Mongols after they scattered throughout the country in search of prey.

Powerful garrisons were located in large cities in the north-eastern part of the state, a wall was built around Samarkand and a ditch was excavated, although Muhammad doubted the effectiveness of defensive structures. The concentration of most of the troops was planned to be made southwest of the Amu Darya, where the main center of resistance was to be located there.

Before the outbreak of hostilities, the Mongols conducted a deep large-scale reconnaissance of enemy forces. When the reports of informants were brought together in the headquarters of the Mongolian khan, it was decided to bet on the surprise and mobility of the Mongolian troops.

In the summer of 1219, according to various sources, Genghis Khan prepared from 150 to 200 thousand people to march on Khorezm. The Khorezm sultan Muhammad could easily assemble and put up against the invaders from the east a twice as large army. However, these were poorly trained, poorly disciplined detachments, moreover, Muhammad was afraid of his own emirs, who could at any moment rebel against him.

The beginning of the war

The historian Ibn al-Asir describes the Mongol invasion in Central Asia as follows: “What I am embarking on is a narrative of a terrible event, and the greatest misfortune that time has ever experienced, and which encompassed all created by, and especially Muslims... Perhaps people will never see such a disaster until the end of the existence of the Universe... This people came out of the outskirts of al-Sina. They rushed to the cities of Turkestan, such as Kashgar and Balasagun... from there to the cities of Maverannahra, such as Bukhara, Samarkand and others... Then they crossed to Khorasan, captured and devastated it, destroying [the cities], killing and robbing. From there they passed to Rei, Hamadan and the country of Jibal, with its cities all the way to the borders of Iraq. Then they rushed to the cities of Azerbaijan and Arran, destroyed them and killed most of their inhabitants. Only a few survived from them, remaining homeless. And all this in less than a year! This has never been known. ”

In 1219, Genghis Khan personally went on a campaign with all his sons and with the main military forces. The conquering army was divided into several parts. One was commanded by his sons Chagatai and Ogedei, left by the father to besiege Otrar; the second was headed by the eldest son - Jochi. His main goal was to conquer Sygnak and Jenda. The third army was sent to Khojent. The main forces led by Genghis Khan and his son Toluy were to capture Samarkand.

The siege of Otrar by the forces of several Tumen began in September 1219 and lasted about five months. Kaiyr Khan, knowing that the Mongols would not spare him, defended himself fiercely. The betrayal of one of the military leaders accelerated the fall of Otrar. Coming out of the city gates at night, he surrendered to the Mongols. Through the same gate the besiegers burst into the city. Part of the troops and residents locked themselves in the fortress and continued to defend themselves. Only a month later, the Mongols were able to take the citadel. All her defenders were killed, the fortress was destroyed, Kaiyr Khan was executed, and the city after plunder was razed to the ground. The captives (hashar) from Otrar were then used in the assault on Khojent and Samarkand.

Detachments of Jochi, who made trips around the Syr Darya, in the spring of 1220 approached Sygnak. The siege lasted seven days, after which the Mongols broke into the city and destroyed all its fortifications. For a short time, the Mongols obeyed Uzgen, Barchynlykent and Jend. The 10,000th unit took Yangikent and headed to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, mobilized 10,000 Turkmens there. They rebelled, were partially defeated, and partly retreated south, in the direction of Merv. The main forces of Juchi are located in the Jenda area.

The tactics of the Mongols in relation to the population of cities

If the city was able to take by storm after stubborn resistance, the Mongol commanders carried out "general massacre" (Arabic-Persian, Katl-i Amm), and the remaining inhabitants, having driven them out first in the field, were divided between the soldiers who converted them into slavery. So it was in Otrar, Sygnak, Ashnas, Termez, Nis, Balkh, Nishapur, Sabzavar, Tus, Gurganj, Herat (with a second capture after the uprising) and in other places. Sometimes along with cities their rural districts were cut out. After the massacre of captive scribes, they were forced to count the number of those killed. According to Juvaini, after the massacre at Merv, the counting of those killed lasted 13 days.

The siege of Khojent and the heroism of Temur Malik

In 1220, the third army of 5 thousand people. took Benakent and surrounded Khojent, also located on the Syr Darya. During the siege, the number of Mongolian troops increased to 20 thousand people, the number of prisoners used in the siege - up to 50 thousand people. Temur Malik, who led the defense of the island fortress, sailed down the Syr Darya. The Mongols organized the persecution, and when Timur-Melik reached the area of​​Juchi’s troops, he was forced to land on the left bank of the river and was able to escape the pursuit in battle, then kill the Mongol governor in Yangikent. As the historian Rashid ad-Din describes, “Timur Melik was left with a small number of people. He still showed stamina and did not give up. When these were also killed, he had no weapons left, except for three arrows, one of which was broken and without a tip. He was pursued by three Mongols; he blinded one of them with an arrow without a tip, which he released, and the other said: “There are two arrows left according to the number of you. I'm sorry for the arrows. You better go back and save your life. ” The Mongols turned back, and he reached Khorezm and again prepared for the battle. ".

The siege and extermination of the inhabitants of Bukhara

The fourth army, led by the ruler of the Mongols and his son Toluy, approached Bukhara(according to various sources, the garrison was 3 thousand or 20 thousand people), which after a short siege fell into the hands of the Mongols in March 1220. Residents were brutally abused, and the city was plundered, destroyed and burned by the Mongols, prisoners were sent to the siege of Samarkand. The historian Ibn al-Asir describes the events as follows: “After Genghis Khan freed himself from taking the fortress [Bukhara], he ordered the rewriting of all the main persons and elders of the city.... Then he ordered [the inhabitants of Bukhara] to leave the city. They left deprived of their property. None of them had anything but the clothes that were on him. The infidels entered the city and began to rob and kill any [of those who did not leave] who were found. [Genghis Khan] surrounded Muslims and ordered his people to divide them among themselves, which they did. It was a terrible den Day continuous weeping men, women and children. And [the inhabitants of Bukhara throughout the country] scattered like the Saba, and [their former unity] "was torn to shreds." Bukhara became “completely destroyed”.

Attack on Samarkand and kill its inhabitants

Leaving Bukhara in ruins, Genghis Khan headed for Samarkand along the Sogdiana valley (according to various sources, the garrison was 40 thousand or 110 thousand; 20 fighting elephants). On the third day, part of the clergy opened the gates to him and surrendered the city without a fight. 30 thousand Kangl warriors, who were the backbone of the Khorezmshah Mohammed and his mother Turkan Khatun, were executed by the Mongols. As the historian Ibn al-Asir wrote: “On the fourth day they announced in the city that the whole population would reach them, and if anyone slows down with this, they will kill him. All men, women and children came out to them, and they did the same with them as with the inhabitants of Bukhara - they committed robberies, killings, captivity and all kinds of atrocities. Entering the city, they sacked it and burned the cathedral mosque, and left the rest as it was. They raped the girls and subjected people to all kinds of tortures, demanding money. They killed those who were not suitable for hijacking in captivity ”.

Campaign on Balkh and extermination of its inhabitants

Approaching the city of Balkh, the Mongols did not meet the armed resistance of its inhabitants. Relying on Genghis Khan's promise of mercy, the inhabitants opened the city gates to him without a fight. However, Genghis Khan deceived the inhabitants. Balkhians were all polled by the Mongols. Walls and fortifications, as well as mosques and palaces were destroyed, the city was set on fire. According to other medieval manuscript sources, the fall and plunder of Balkh is drawn in a slightly different form: “Genghis Khan,” writes Mirza Ulugbek, “rejected the request of the dignitaries of Balkh who came to his meeting for pardon and mercy [of the townspeople] on the grounds that they hid before that in Balkh Sultan Jalal ad-Dinson of Khorezmshah. " Mirza Ulugbek has another interesting detail: in vain trying to take Balkh by force, the Mongols destroyed the famous Band-i Amir dam on the Balkhab River and flooded the whole city. Rescuers from the flood were destroyed. One way or another, the city was destroyed, its inhabitants were killed, material and spiritual values​​destroyed. “After the defeat and devastation caused by Genghis Khan,” Degin writes, “Balkh could not recover for a long time” and never reached its former heyday .

Capture of Merv

In 1220, Merv, the largest city of Khorasan, was captured. The historian Ibn al-Asir gives the following information: “Then [the son of Genghis Khan] sat in the golden seat and ordered the soldiers he captured to be brought. They were brought and executed, and people looked at them and cried. As for the common people, the infidels divided among themselves men, women and children and their property. Because of [terrible] screams, sobs and groans, [this day was like the coming day of the final judgment, which is said:] “And this is the day that they will see!”. They seized the rich, beat them and tortured them in every possible way, seeking money. It is possible that one of them died from a severe beating, [although] he did not have anything left with which he could pay off ”.

The flight of Khorezmshah Al Al-Din Muhammad

Without a fight, losing the war and having no support, Muhammad fled to one of the deserted islands of the Caspian Sea, where he died in the village of Astara in February 1221, transferring power to his son Jalal-ad-Din. Three tumens, led by Jaebe, Subaedei-Bagatur and Tohuchar-noion, pursued Muhammad. Passing through the possessions of Khan-Melik, Tohuchar, in violation of the preliminary agreement, began to rob and capture the inhabitants, as a result of which he was recalled by Genghis Khan and demoted.

The assault of Urgench and the courage of Najm ad-Din Kubra

Genghis Khan did not go further than Samarkand, but sent Toluy with the 70,000th army to conquer Khorasan, and at the beginning of 1221 the 50,000th army of Jochi, Chagatai and Ugadei approached the capital of Khorezm - the city of Urgench. After seven months the sieges of the Mongols took him, defeated him, and captured the inhabitants. As the historian Rashid ad-din wrote, "the Mongols fought fiercely and took block after block and palace after palace, demolished them and burned them until within seven days they took the whole city in such a way. they drove everyone out into the steppe at once. about a hundred thousand artisans were separated from them and sent to the eastern countries, while the young women and children were driven to full, and the rest of the people were divided among the soldiers to be killed. They say that there were twenty-four people for each Mongol, the number of warriors [mongols] was more than fifty ten thousand. In short, everyone was killed and the army [of the Mongols] started to flood and plunder. ”At once, the remains of houses and neighborhoods were destroyed.

Genghis Khan heard about the Sheikh Sheikhs, the pole of the poles Najm ad-din Kubra, and he sent him to say: “I will betray Khorezm to beating and robbery. That saint of his time needs to leave the Khorezmians and join us! ” Sheikh, in response, said: “For seventy years now, I have been content and endure the bitterness and sweetness of fate in Khorezm with these people. Now, when [the time has come] the incidence of misfortune, if I run away and leave it, it will be far from the path of nobility and generosity! ”. Najm ad-din Kubra died during the assault on the city.

As Juvaini wrote: “The inhabitants of the city have strengthened themselves in the streets and neighborhoods; they started fights on every street, and barriers were set up near each aisle. "The [Mongolian] army burned their houses and quarters with oil vessels and sewed people together with arrows and cores." When the city was captured, the surviving residents were driven out into the field. The artisans were separated and enslaved (over 100,000 by Juveini), as well as young women and children, and the other inhabitants were divided between the soldiers, and according to Juveini, 24 people fell to the share of each soldier, and they killed everyone with “axes, picks, sabers, maces. " After that, the Mongols opened the dams, the Amu-Darya water poured and flooded the whole city, so that the people hiding in different shelters died, and “not one survived from the inhabitants”.

Conquest of Eastern Iran

Meanwhile, Toluy, together with his army, entered the province of Khorasan and stormed Nessa, after which he appeared in front of the fortress walls of Merv. Near Merv, captives from almost all the cities previously captured by the Mongols were used. Taking advantage of the betrayal of the inhabitants of the city, the Mongols captured Merv and, in their usual manner, plundered and burned the city in April 1221.

From Merv, Tolui went to Nishapur. For four days its inhabitants fought desperately on the walls and streets of the city, but the forces were unequal. The city was taken, and, with the exception of four hundred artisans left alive and sent to Mongolia, the remaining men, women and children were brutally murdered. Herat opened his gates to the Mongols, but this did not save him from ruin. At this stage of his advancement in the cities of Asia, Tolui received an order from his father to join his army in Badakhshan.

Jalal al-Din's fight with the Mongols

On the territory of Afghanistan, the struggle against Genghis Khan was led by the son of Al Al-Din Mohammed II Khorezmshah (1200-1220) Jalal ad-Din, who was the ruler of the Ghazni inheritance. He gathered a considerable army. In Garchistan (the upper Murgab region), Khan-Malik (from the Turkmen) joined him.), as well as one of the largest Turkmen leaders, Safe ad-din, who had a 40,000th army. Upon arrival in Ghazni, Timur-Malik and Amin al-mulk, the Gur emirs, and finally a detachment of Afghan soldiers led by Muzaffar-Malik joined him with their troops. Speaking in the summer of 1221 towards Genghis Khan, Jalal ad-din camped at the village of Parvan. He made a successful attack on a large detachment of Mongolian troops, besieging the fortress of Valiyan, and completely defeated it.

Alarmed by the defeat of his troops, information about which could inspire and raise against the Mongols the population of the regions conquered by him and his sons, Genghis Khan sent a large detachment of troops (30-40 thousand) led by one of his experienced military commanders, Shigi- Hutuhu Noyon (Shigi Kutuk). Jalal-ad-Din, having gathered the 70,000th army, defeated the 30,000th Mongol detachment led by Shigi-Kutuku under Pervan.

Genghis Khan, who at that time was connected by the siege of Talcan, soon took possession of the strong city and could himself with the main forces speak out against Jalal ad-Din; its rear was provided by the Toluya detachment in Khorasan. The leader of the Mongols at the head of the 30,000th army overtook Jalal ad-Din in December 1221 on the banks of the Indus River. The Khorezm army consisted of 50 thousand people. The Mongols carried out a roundabout maneuver in rugged rocky terrain and struck the Khorezmians on the flank. Genghis Khan also introduced into the battle the elite guards unit "Bagatura". The army of Jalal-ad-Din was defeated, and he himself was sailed with 4 thousand soldiers.

In pursuit of the young Sultan, who fled this time to Delhi, Genghis Khan sent a 20-thousand army. Devastating the provinces of Lahore, Peshawar and Melikpur, the Mongols returned to Ghazni. For another 10 years, Jalal-ad-Din fought with the Mongols until he died in Anatolia in 1231. In the struggle against the Mongol conquerors, the Turkmen nobility showed personal courage and courage.

For three years (1219-1221) under the blows of the Mongols, the kingdom of Muhammad Khorezmshah fell, stretching from the Indus to the Caspian Sea, its eastern part was conquered.

The results of the Mongol invasion

Negative results

The campaign of the Mongols in Central Asia was accompanied by:

terrible devastations and mass deaths from swords and arrows of conquerors,

from fires and conflagration caused by the breakthrough of flood channels, for many centuries left in ruins and desolation once blooming oases and cities.

The surviving population experienced more severe forms of feudal dependence and exploitation under Mongol dominion;

in these countries, the slave system was revived widely,

the cattle-breeding, nomadic sector of the economy became predominant due to a sharp reduction in agriculture, undermined by the destruction of a network of skilled irrigation facilities.

Most of the artisans of these countries were exported to Mongolia to serve the needs of the conquerors.

The country could not recover from the devastation of the times of the conquest also because the conquerors were unable to establish either solid power, law or a lasting peace.

Positive results

Mongolian authorities stimulated the development of trade and international relations. Trade and diplomatic ties were established with distant countries. Caravans, diplomatic missions, travelers moved along the territory of the uluses;

The idea of ​​“centralized power” was brought to the steppe, which led to the political consolidation of tribes;

One of the main innovations related to the Mongolian period is the introduction of the postal and pit services, which brought a certain dynamism to the transport and communication system of the Middle Ages. A messenger with dispatches at each postal station changed horses, which significantly reduced travel time;

Separate forms of the political system were also subsequently used in the states that emerged on the territory of Central Asia in the post-Mongol era;

The Mongols did not oppress the culture of the tribes - languages, religions, customs and traditions.