Centuries of fragmentation of Germany into principalities and kingdoms caused a great regional diversity and favoured vernacular architecture. This made for a heterogeneous and diverse architectural style, with architecture differing from town to town. While this diversity may still be witnessed in small towns, the devastation of architectural heritage in the larger cities during World War II resulted in extensive rebuilding characterized by simple modernist architecture.
Ancient architecture
The Roman Empire once extended over much of today's German Federal Republic, and there are still remains from around 100-150AD at the Limes Romanus, the border defence system of Ancient Rome marking the boundaries of the Roman Empire at that time. In addition to military structures such as forts and military camps built by the Romans, and other border fortifications, there are also spas, bridges, and amphitheatres.
Trier, on the banks of the Moselle River, is the oldest city in Germany, a great metropolis founded in or before 16 BC. The best-known survival from that period is probably the Porta Nigra, the best-preserved ancient city gate. There are also remains of thermal spas, a Roman bridge and the (reconstructed) Constantine basilica.
With the departure of the Romans, their urban culture and their advances in architecture (e.g., heating, windows, and glass) vanished from Germany.
Pre-Romanesque
The Pre-Romanesque period in Western European art is usually dated from either the emergence of the Merovingian kingdom in about 500 or from the Carolingian Renaissance in the late 8th century, to the beginning of the 11th century Romanesque period. German buildings from this period include Lorsch Abbey. This combines elements of the Roman triumphal arch (arch-shaped passageways, half-columns) with the vernacular Teutonic heritage (baseless triangles of the blind arcade, polychromatic masonry).
One of the most important churches in this style is the Abbey Church of St. Michael's, constructed between 1001 and 1031 under the direction of Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim (993-1022) as the chapel of his Benedictine monastery. It is built in the so-called Ottonic (Early-Romanesque) style. The Ottonian Renaissance was a minor renaissance that accompanied the reigns of the first three emperors of the Saxon Dynasty, all named Otto: Otto I (936–973), Otto II (973–983), and Otto III (983–1002).
Romanesque
The Romanesque period, from the 10th to the early 13th century, is characterised by semi-circular arches, robust appearance, small paired windows, and groin vaults. Many churches in Germany date from this time, including the twelve Romanesque churches of Cologne. The most significant building of this period in Germany is Speyer Cathedral. It was built in stages from about 1030, and was in the 11th century the largest building in the Christian world and an architectural symbol of the power of the Salian dynasty, a dynasty of four German Kings (1024–1125).
The cathedrals of Worms and Mainz are other important examples of Romanesque style. Many churches and monasteries were founded in this era, particularly in Saxony-Anhalt. The Rhenish Romanesque, for example at Limburg Cathedral, produced works that used coloured surrounds. Of particular importance are also the church of St. Servatius in Quedlinburg, and also Luebeck Cathedral, Brunswick Cathedral, Hildesheim Cathedral, St. Michael in Hildesheim, Trier Cathedral and Bamberg Cathedral, whose last phase of construction falls in the Gothic period.
Maulbronn Abbey is considered a significant example of Cistercian architecture. It was built between the 12th and 15th centuries, and therefore includes Gothic elements. In the 11th century there also began construction of numerous castles, including the famous castle of Wartburg, which was later expanded in the Gothic style.
Gothic
Gothic architecture flourished during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture. The first Gothic buildings in Germany were built from about 1230, for example the Liebfrauenkirche (German for Church of Our dear Lady) ca. 1233-1283 in Trier, which is one of the most important early Gothic cathedrals in Germany and falls into the architectural tradition of the French Gothic.
Freiburg Cathedral was built in three stages, the first beginning in 1120 under the dukes of Zähringen, the second beginning in 1210, and the third in 1230. Of the original building, only the foundations still exist. It is noted for its 116-metre tower, which Jacob Burckhardt reputedly claimed is the most beautiful in Christian architecture. The tower is nearly square at the base, and at its centre is the dodecagonal star gallery. Above this gallery, the tower is octagonal and tapered, with the spire above. It is the only Gothic church tower in Germany that was completed in the Middle Ages (1330), and survived the bombing raids of November 1944, which destroyed all of the houses on the west and north side of the market.
Cologne Cathedral is after Milan Cathedral the largest Gothic cathedral in the world. Construction began in 1248 and took, with interruptions, until 1880 to complete – a period of over 600 years. It is 144.5 metres long, 86.5 m wide and its two towers are 157 m tall. Because of its enormous twin spires, it also has the largest façade of any church in the world. The choir of the cathedral, measured between the piers, also holds the distinction of having the largest height to width ratio of any Medieval church, 3.6:1, exceeding even Beauvais Cathedral which has a slightly higher vault.
Brick Gothic (German: Backsteingotik) is a specific style of Gothic architecture common in Northern Europe, especially in Northern Germany and the regions around the Baltic Sea without natural rock resources. The buildings are built more or less using only bricks. Stralsund City Hall and St. Nicholas Church are good examples of this style. Cities such as Lübeck, Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund Greifswald and various towns in present-day northern and western Poland are shaped by this regional style. A model for many North German churches was St. Mary's in Lübeck, built between 1200 and 1350.
The building of Gothic churches was accompanied by the construction of the guild houses and the construction of town halls by the rising bourgeoisie. A good example is the Gothic Town Hall (13th century) at Stralsund. There is also Bremen Town Hall (1410) and the (reconstructed) city hall of Munster (originally from 1350).
The dwellings of this period were mainly timber-framed buildings, as can still be seen in Goslar and Quedlinburg. Quedlinburg has one of the oldest half-timbered houses in Germany. The method of construction, used extensively for town houses of the Medieval and Renaissance periods, (see Dornstetten, illustrated above) lasted into the 20th century for rural buildings.
Renaissance
Renaissance architecture belongs to the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different parts of Europe, when there was a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and culture. The earliest example of Renaissance architecture in Germany is the Fugger chapel in St. Anne's Church, Augsburg. At that time, Germany was fragmented into numerous principalities, the citizens generally had few rights and armed conflict, especially the religious conflicts of the Protestant Reformation, ensured that large tracts of land remained virtually undeveloped.
Some princes, however, promoted modern art, for example in Torgau and Aschaffenburg, and Landshut, where the renaissance era originated. Examples include the decorated inner courtyard of Trausnitz Castle and the ducal Landshut Residence in the inner city, built by Italian Renaissance master craftsmen.
St. Michael in Munich (begun around 1581) is an important Renaissance building. There is also Heidelberg Castle with its typical Renaissance façades. Augsburg City Hall is also a significant renaissance, but it was late, built from 1614 to 1620, by the Augsburg architect Elias Holl.
In the area of the Weser there are numerous castles and manor houses in the style of the Weser Renaissance. There are also the cities of Lemgo and Hamelin. Wolfenbüttel Castle of Guelph and the evangelical church Beatae Maria Virginis are also special examples of the Renaissance style.
In Thuringia and Saxony, many churches and palaces in the Renaissance style were built, for example, William Castle with castle in Schmalkalden, the church of Rudolstadt, the Castle of Gotha, a town hall in Leipzig, the interior of the presbytery, the Freiberg Cathedral, the Castle in Dresden or the Schönhof in Gorlitz. In northern Germany there is Güstrower Castle and the rich interior of Stralsund's Nikolai Church.
Baroque
Baroque architecture began in the early 17th century in Italy, reinventing the humanist Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture in a new rhetorical, theatrical, sculptural fashion, expressing the triumph of absolutist church and state. But whereas the Renaissance drew on the wealth and power of the Italian courts, and was a blend of secular and religious forces, the Baroque directly linked to the Counter-Reformation, a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself in response to the Protestant Reformation.
The Baroque style arrived in Germany after the Thirty Years War. The Baroque architecture of the German government royal and princely houses was based on the model of France, especially the court of Louis XIV at Versailles. Examples are the Zwinger Palace in Dresden built by Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann from 1709 to 1728, initially for the holding of court festivals. The architecture of absolutism always put the ruler at the center, thus increasing the spatial composition, for example, the power of the ruler - perhaps in the form of the magnificent staircase leading to the person of the ruler.
The interaction of architecture, painting and sculpture is an essential feature of Baroque architecture. An important example is the Würzburg Residence with the Emperor's Hall and the staircase, whose construction began under the leadership of Johann Balthasar Neumann, in 1720. The frescoes in the staircase were made by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo from 1751 to 1753.
Other well-known Baroque palaces are the New Palace in Potsdam, Schloss Charlottenburg in Berlin, Schloss Weißenstein in Pommersfelden and Augustusburg Castle in Brühl, whose interiors are partly in the Rococo style.
Rococo is the late phase of the Baroque, in which the decoration became even more abundant and showed most colors in even brighter tones. For example, Sanssouci Palace, built from 1745 to 1747, which was the former summer palace of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, in Potsdam, near Berlin. It is often counted among the German rivals of Versailles.
Among the best known examples include the Bavarian Baroque church in the Benedictine Ottobeuren, the Weltenburg monastery, Ettal Abbey and St. John Nepomuk Church, called Asam Church in Munich. Other examples of Baroque church architecture are the Basilica of the Vierzehnheiligen in Upper Franconia and the rebuilt Frauenkirche in Dresden, created by George Bähr between 1722 and 1743.
Classicism
Classicism arrived in Germany in the second half of the 18th century. It drew inspiration from the classical architecture of antiquity, and was a reaction against the Baroque style, in both architecture and landscape design.
The English Grounds of Wörlitz is one of the first and largest English parks in Germany. It was created in the late 18th century under the regency of Duke Leopold III of Anhalt-Dessau (1740–1817), after returning from a Grand Tour to Italy, the Netherlands, England, France and Switzerland which he had taken together with his architect friend Friedrich Wilhelm von Erdmannsdorff. Unlike the formal Baroque gardens, it celebrated the naturalistic manner of the English landscape garden, and symbolised the promised freedom of the Enlightenment era.
The Brandenburg Gate, commissioned by King Frederick William II of Prussia as a sign of peace and completed by Carl Gotthard Langhans in 1791, is arguably one of the most famous monuments of classicism in Germany. The Brandenburg Gate was restored from 2000 to 2002 by the Stiftung Denkmalschutz Berlin (Berlin Monument Conservation Foundation). It is now considered one of Europe's most famous landmarks.
The most important architect of this style in Germany was undoubtedly Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Schinkel's style, in his most productive period, is defined by its appeal to Greek rather than Imperial Roman architecture, avoiding the style that was linked to the recent French occupiers. His most famous buildings are found in and around Berlin. These include Neue Wache (1816–1818), the Schauspielhaus (1819–1821) at the Gendarmenmarkt, which replaced the earlier theater that was destroyed by fire in 1817, and the Altes Museum (old museum, see photo) on Museum Island (1823–1830).
Leo von Klenze (1784–1864) was a court architect of Bavarian King Ludwig I, another prominent representative of the Greek revival style. Ludwig's passion for Hellenism inspired the architectural style of von Klenze, who built many neoclassical buildings in Munich, including the Ruhmeshalle and Monopteros temple. On Königsplatz he designed probably the best known modern Hellenistic architectural ensemble. Near Regensburg he built the Walhalla temple, named after Valhalla, the home of the gods in Norse mythology.
Another important building of the period is Wilhelm Castle in Kassel (begun 1786).
Historicism
Historicism (historismus), sometimes known as eclecticism, is an artistic and architectural style that draws inspiration from historic styles or craftmanship. After the neo-classicist period (which could itself be considered a historicist movement), a new historicist phase emerged in the middle of the 19th century, marked by a return to a more ancient classicism, in particular in architecture and in the genre of history painting.
An important architect of this period was Gottfried Semper, who built the gallery (1855) at the Zwinger Palace and the Semper Opera (1878) in Dresden, and was involved with the first design of the Schwerin Palace. Semper's buildings have features derived from the early Renaissance style, Baroque and even features Corinthian style pillars typical of classical Greece.
There were regional variants of the historicist styles in Germany. Examples are the resort architecture (especially in MV on the German Baltic coast), the Hanover School of Architecture and the Nuremberg style.
The predilection for medieval buildings has its most famous exemplar in the castle of Neuschwanstein, which Ludwig II commissioned in 1869. Neuschwanstein was designed by Christian Jank, a theatrical set designer, which possibly explains the fantastical nature of the resulting building. The architectural expertise, vital to a building in such a perilous site, was provided first by the Munich court architect Eduard Riedel and later by Georg von Dollmann, son-in-law of Leo von Klenze.
There is also Ulm Cathedral, and at the end of the period the Reichstag building (1894) by Paul Wallot.
Art Nouveau (Jugendstil)
German Art Nouveau is commonly known by its German name, Jugendstil. The name is taken from the artistic journal, Die Jugend, which was published in Munich and which espoused the new artistic movement. Two other journals, Simplicissimus, published in Munich, and Pan, published in Berlin, proved to be important proponents of the Jugendstil. The two main centres for Jugendstil art in Germany were Munich and Darmstadt.
Drawing from traditional German printmaking, the style uses precise and hard edges, an element that was rather different from the flowing lines seen in Art Nouveau elsewhere. Henry Van de Velde, who worked most of his career in Germany, was a Belgian theorist who influenced many others to continue in this style of graphic art including Peter Behrens, Hermann Obrist, and Richard Riemerschmid. August Endell is another notable Art Nouveau designer.
Modern
The distinctive character of modern architecture is the elimination of unnecessary ornament from a building and faithfulness to its structure and function. The style is commonly summed up in four slogans: ornament is a crime, truth to materials, form follows function, and Le Corbusier's description of houses as "machines for living". It developed early in the 20th century. It was adopted by many influential architects and architectural educators. Although few "Modern buildings" were built in the first half of the century, after the Second World War it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings for three decades.
The initial impetus for modernist architecture in Germany was mainly industrial construction, in which the architectural design was not subjected to so much to the prevailing historicism, for example the AEG Turbine Hall in Berlin by Peter Behrens (1908–1909) and especially the Fagus Factory by Walter Gropius in Alfeld an der Leine (1911–1914). During this period (1915) there occurred the construction of the first skyscraper in Jena.
The so-called classical modernism in Germany is essentially identical to the Bauhaus, founded by Gropius in 1919, shortly after he had succeeded Henry van de Velde in Weimar as Director of the Arts and Crafts School. The Bauhaus became the most influential art and architecture school of the 20th century development. Although at first it had no architecture department, Gropius saw in the architecture, the "ultimate goal of all artistic activity."
The Einstein Tower (German: Einsteinturm) is an astrophysical observatory in the Albert Einstein Science Park in Potsdam, Germany designed by architect Erich Mendelsohn. This was one of Mendelsohn's first major projects, completed when a young Richard Neutra was on his staff, and his best-known building.
At a time of inflation and economic hardship, the Bauhaus sought a cost-effective, functional and modern design for housing. Thus in Weimar in 1923 there arose the Haus am Horn of Georg Muche and Adolf Meyer. In 1925, a year after the nationalist parties gained a majority in the Thuringian state parliament, the Bauhaus in Weimar was shut down. That same year, in Dessau, Gropius began to build a new school, completed in 1926. The Bauhaus Dessau is by far the most famous monument of classical modern art in Germany.
Architecture in National Socialism
The seizure of power by the National Socialists in 1933 signified the temporary end of architectural modernism in Germany. The architecture Nazism preferred a strict, monumental, highly simplified Neoclassicism. Representative buildings and urban redevelopments show a clear tendency for over-dimensioning. The architecture served as a self-portrayal of the National Socialists who wanted to convey the appearance of grandeur, eternity and power and therefore preferred antique forms with (curtain) facades and wall coverings made of natural stone.
The most well-known example is that planned by Albert Speer starting from 1934 Reichsparteitagsgelände in Nuremberg. Among other things, one can see the unfinished congress hall built in the style of the Coliseum (Ludwig and Franz Ruff, from 1934), in which today the Documentation Center (Günther Domenig, 2001) is located, and the Zeppelin Grandstand modeled on the Pergamon Altar (Albert Speer, 1934-1937), which conveys not only the reference to antiquity but also the quasi-religious aspect of National Socialist ideology.
Another example is the " Reichssportfeld " in Berlin with the Olympic Stadium planned by Werner March for the 1936 Olympic Games. Here are also the typical sculptures - the oversized, idealized figures (see: Arno Breker) - to see, which often adorned the rule architecture of the National Socialists.
A declared example of architecture under National Socialism was Prussian Classicism, especially the works of Karl Friedrich Schinkel. For example, there is a similarity in the façade of Schinkel's Altem Museum and the House of Art in Munich planned by Paul Ludwig Troost, which opened in 1937 as the "House of German Art" with the " Great German Art Exhibition ". In Munich, the " capital of the movement ", they also set up a kind of "party district" on Königsplatz with u. a.Troost planned administrative buildings of the NSDAP.
The city foundations of this time include Wolfsburg ("City of the KdF car ", from 1938) and Salzgitter ("City of Hermann Göring Works"); In addition, there were reconstruction plans for conquered cities and gigantomanische city planning for the so-called "Führer cities" Munich, Hamburg, Nuremberg, Linz and Berlin. On behalf of Adolf Hitler planned Albert Speer from 1937, the transformation of the Reich capital Berlin to " World Capital Germania "; Part of the plan was also planned from 1935 Tempelhof Airport whose lobby reflects the stone architectural ideal of this period.
Post-War Reconstruction
During the Allied strategic bombing campaign of World War II, the historic city centres of most cities suffered severe losses to architectural heritage, with significant cases of almost total annihilation.
The fiercely discussed reconstruction efforts after the war varied considerably between East and West Germany, and between individual cities. In most cities some of the more significant landmarks were restored or reconstructed, often in a simplified manner. In general, the cities were not reconstructed according to their historic appearance, but in a functional, modernist style, with often a greater emphasis on desperatetly needed housing, than historic structures.
There is a recent trend in the 21st century in many German cities to resume reconstruction work and New Classical Architecture in core areas. Examples of this can be found at the Neumarkt in Dresden (including the famous Frauenkirche), with reconstructions in the old town of Frankfurt (Dom-Römer Project), with the City Palace of Berlin and the old market and City Palace of Potsdam.
Postmodernism
The architectural style " postmodernism " began in the mid-1970s in the US and lasted until the late 1980s, which is why it was limited in its distribution to West Germany. Postmodernism is regarded as a counter-movement of the international style and has its theoretical foundation in the eponymous philosophical or literary-theoretical current. The postmodern design language typically works with architectural-historical quotations, which are sometimes caricaturally exaggerated by some architects; The architecture should not only be limited to the function, but also "tell" or impart content.
An example of postmodernism in Germany is the German Architecture Museum (opened in 1984) in Frankfurt am Main. Oswald Mathias Ungers has gutted an existing villa and installed a "house in the house" inside. The built-in "house" is a construction-historical quotation: it embodies the legendary Urhütte, which stands for the beginning of the architecture.
One of the most important works of postmodern architecture is the New Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, planned by James Stirling since 1977 and also completed in 1984, which caused a sensation through monumentality, the play with historical quotes and daring coloring.
Also in the style of postmodernism, Hans Hollein planned the Museum of Modern Art (1991) in Frankfurt am Main.
With the 256 m high postmodern Frankfurter Messeturm by Helmut Jahn, Europe's tallest skyscraper was built in 1991, which was replaced by Norman Foster's 1997 postmodern Commerzbank Tower, the highest skyscraper in Germany.
Deconstructivism
The Deconstruction began in the late 1980s and also received impulses from contemporary philosophy. A precursor to this development was Gottfried Böhm, who became known through "concrete rocks" such as the Neviges pilgrimage dome, which was designed in 1968. Böhm received the prestigious Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1986.
The deconstructionist buildings for the company Vitra in Weil am Rhein caused a sensation : the Vitra Design Museum (1989) by Frank O. Gehry and the fire station (1993) by Zaha Hadid. In Germany, this laid the foundation for a worldwide renewal movement in architecture.
Another example is the documentation center Reichsparteitagsgelände in Nuremberg. As a demarcation to the monumental architecture of the Reich Party Rally Grounds established by the National Socialists, Günther Domenig decidedly deconstructed the installation of the Documentation Center (2001) in the unfinished Congress Hall. The Ufa Crystal Palace in Dresden is also an oft-cited example of deconstructivism in Germany.
Deconstructivism is also one of the contemporary trends in architecture, as evidenced by more recent plans - such as the design for the new building of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt am Main by Coop Himmelb (l).
Contemporary currents
The contemporary architecture in Germany is - especially in the public perception - shaped by a number of well-known, internationally active architects ("star architects"). These companies receive many orders for larger projects and prestigious buildings. Even German architects are often active worldwide today.
A demarcation of architecture in Germany to the rest of the world is now often impossible, architecture development is often only to capture in a global context. This global interchangeability and uniformity of contemporary architecture is often criticized. German architecture offices manage u. a.Large-scale urban development projects (eg Albert Speer & Partner in the People's Republic of China, Ingenhoven Architects in Ireland). On the other hand, offices from abroad realize projects in Germany, often in cooperation with locally based offices. For example, the Swiss Herzog & de Meuron designed the Allianz Arena in Munich and the Elbphilharmonie in Hamburg or Zaha Hadid the " phæno " science museum in Wolfsburg (2005).
Currently, various globalized trends in architecture can be observed. From the deconstructivism has developed through the increased use of computers in the design phase, a kind of neo- expressionism. The result is individual sculptural structures designed to lend artistic expression to their contents, and in part to the building itself. Examples include the extension of the Jewish Museum Berlin by Daniel Libeskind or Frank O. Gehry's buildings at the so-called Media Harbor in Düsseldorf.
As a countermovement to the deconstructivist or expressive world of forms there is minimalism, with its buildings deliberately designed in sparse and reduced formal language, as can be seen in the buildings by Tadao Ando, for example: For example, the conference center for the Vitra in Weil am Rhein and the art and exhibition building of the Long Foundation near Neuss.
The flow of technology-oriented, new functionalism represents, for example, Norman Foster, as can be seen at the dome of the Reichstag building in Berlin or the Commerzbank Tower in Frankfurt am Main. Above all, the latter is a building that is planned in the sense of " ecological construction " and designed to conserve resources from design to technical equipment. This construction as well as the " sustainable building " (eg Anna Heringer) are among the trend-setting, if not style-defining developments in the German architectural scene. Not least because of the high technical standards in the construction industry, Germany is regarded as a pioneer in terms of "ecological" architecture. With the help of new techniques and materials, energy-saving structures are being developed, such as the so-called passive houses or "solar houses" (see Solar Architecture). The use of regional and natural building materials is also gaining importance in this context, eg. B. natural stones such as sandstone, lime paints, clay / clay, brick, slate, thatchand wood.
The increasingly public discussion of architecture and urban planning today means that committed citizens as well as prominent stakeholders influence structural decisions. Thus, for example, through the use of non-profit organizations and the expenses of several well-known people (including TV presenter Günther Jauch, SAP founder Hasso Plattner), succeeded instead of a modern building for the Brandenburg State Parliament to enforce the reconstruction of the historic Potsdam City Palace. The castle was rebuilt in slightly different cubature and with its baroque facades at the original location.
The reconstruction of buildings destroyed or demolished during the war is thus another trend in German building culture, which is increasingly affecting the entire Federal Republic. The most prominent reconstruction of recent years is undoubtedly the Baroque Dresden Frauenkirche (2005) with its surrounding Neumarkt. Other current examples include the Berlin City Palace, the Potsdam Center with the City Palace, Barberini Palace and the Garrison Church, as well as a part of Frankfurt's Old Town (Dom-Römer-Projekt). Other projects are being considered or planned nationwide to repair war and demolition wounds and to repair the cityscapes.
In this context, there is also a general trend towards a resumption of classical scales, proportions and architectural details, also referred to as neo-classical architecture. This trend is due to an increasing rejection of modernist architectural styles in the population, as this type of contemporary architecture is often perceived as cold, impersonal, unimportant or unfair. Thus, people long for "more humane" standards, more small scale, for regional grounding and for classically designed and articulated facades. This development shows u. a.in New Urbanism, which increasingly seized the Federal Republic and instead of loose line building promoted the urban block border construction. Individual architects have already devoted themselves to this topic for some time or have been working towards their ideals. B. Hans Kollhoff, Sergei Tchoban, manner and Treuner architect, Tobias Nöfer architect or the Berlin city planner Hans Stimmann, They are characterized by recourse to classic-proven architectural elements, materials and building arrangements, combine some of these new or lead them on. Occasionally new varieties of postmodernism arise.
Source from Wikipedia
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