Spanish Colonial architecture

Spanish Colonial architecture represents Spanish colonial influence on New World and East Indies cities and towns, and it is still being seen in the architecture as well as in the city planning aspects of conserved present-day cities. These two visible aspects of the city are connected and complementary. The 16th century Laws of the Indies included provisions for the layout of new colonial settlements in the Americas and elsewhere.

To achieve the desired effect of inspiring awe among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas-Indians as well as creating a legible and militarily manageable landscape, the early colonizers used and placed the new architecture within planned townscapes and mission compounds.

The new churches and mission stations, for example, aimed for maximum effect in terms of their imposition and domination of the surrounding buildings or countryside. In order for that to be achievable, they had to be strategically located – at the center of a town square (plaza) or at a higher point in the landscape.

The Spanish Colonial style of architecture dominated in the early Spanish colonies of North and South America, and were also somewhat visible in its other colonies. It is sometimes marked by the contrast between the simple, solid construction demanded by the new environment and the Baroque ornamentation exported from Spain.

Mexico, as the center of New Spain—and the richest province of Spain's colonial empire—has some of the most renowned buildings built in this style. With twenty-nine sites, Mexico has more sites on the UNESCO World Heritage list than any other country in the Americas, many of them boasting some of the richest Spanish Colonial architecture. Some of the most famous cities in Mexico built in the Colonial style are Puebla, Zacatecas, Querétaro, Guanajuato, and Morelia.

The historic center of Mexico City is a mixture of architectural styles from the 16th century to the present. The Metropolitan Cathedral – built from 1563 to 1813 in a variety of styles including the Renaissance, Baroque, and Neo Classical. The rich interior is mostly Baroque. Other examples are the Palacio Nacional, the beautifully restored 18th-century Palacio de Iturbide, the 16th-century Casa de los Azulejos – clad with 18th-century blue-and-white talavera tiles, and many more churches, cathedrals, museums, and palaces of the elite.

During the late 17th century to 1750, one of Mexico's most popular architectural styles was Mexican Churrigueresque. These buildings were built in an ultra-Baroque, fantastically extravagant and visually frenetic style.

Antigua Guatemala in Guatemala is also known for its well preserved Spanish colonial style architecture. The city of Antigua is famous for its well-preserved Spanish Mudéjar-influenced Baroque architecture as well as a number of spectacular ruins of colonial churches dating from the 16th century. It has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Ciudad Colonial (colonial city) of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, founded in 1498, is the oldest city in the New World and a prime example of this architectural style. The port of Cartagena, Colombia, founded in 1533 and Santa Ana de Coro, Venezuela, founded in 1527, are two more UNESCO World Heritage Sites preserving some of the best Spanish colonial architecture in the Caribbean." San Juan was founded by the Spaniards in 1521, where Spanish colonial architecture can be found like the Historic Hotel El Convento. Also, Old San Juan with its walled city and buildings (ranging from 1521 to the early 20th century) are very good examples, and in excellent condition.

According to UNESCO, Quito, Ecuador has the largest, best-preserved, and least-altered historic centre (320 hectares) in Latin America, despite several earthquakes. It was the first city that was inscribed onto the UNESCO World Heritage List, along with Kraków, Poland in 1978. The historic district of this city is the sole largest and best preserved area of Spanish Colonial architecture in the world.

History of the city grid in the New World
The idea of laying out a city in a grid pattern is not unique to the Spanish. In fact, it never started out with the Spanish colonizers. It has been traced back to some ancient civilizations especially the ancient cities of the Aztec and Maya, and also Ancient Greeks. The idea was spread by the Roman conquest of European empires and its ideas were adopted by other civilizations. It was popularized at different paces and in different levels throughout the Renaissance—the French took to building grid-like villages (ville-neuves) and the English, under King Edward I did as well. Some[who?] argue, however, that Spain was not part of this movement to order towns as grids. Despite its clear military advantage, and despite the knowledge of city planning, the New World settlements of the Spanish actually grew amorphously for some three to four decades before they turned to grids and city plans as ways of organizing space. In contrast to the orders given much later on how the city should be laid out, Ferdinand II did not give specific instructions for how to build the new settlements in the Caribbeans. To Nicolas De Ovando, he said the following in 1501:

As it is necessary in the island of Española to make settlements and from here it is not possible to give precise instructions, investigate the possible sites, and in conformity with the quality of the land and sites as well as with the present population outside present settlements establish settlements in the numbers and in the places that seem proper to you.

City planning: a royal ordinance
In 1513 the monarchs wrote out a set of guidelines that ordained the conduct of Spaniards in the New World as well as that of the Indians that they found there. With regards to city planning, these ordinances had details on the preferred location of a new town and its location relative to the sea, mountains and rivers. It also detailed the shape and measurements of the central plaza taking into account the spacing for purposes of trade as well as the spacing for purposes of festivities or even military operations—occasions that involved horse-riding. In addition to specifying the location of the church, the orientation of roads that run into the main plaza as well as the width of the street with respect to climatic conditions, the guidelines also specified the order in which the city must be built.

The building lots and the structures erected thereon are to be so situated that in the living rooms one can enjoy air from the south and from the north, which are the best. All town homes are to be so planned that they can serve as a defense or fortress against those who might attempt to create disturbances or occupy the town. Each house is to be so constructed that horses and household animals can be kept therein, the courtyards and stockyards being as large as possible to insure health and cleanliness.
La Traza
The traza or layout was the pattern on which Spanish American cities were built beginning in the colonial era. At the heart of Spanish colonial cities was a central plaza, with the main church, town council (cabildo) building, residences of the main civil and religious officials, and the residences of the most important residents (vecinos) of the town built there. The principal businesses were also located around this central plan. Radiated from the main square were streets in at right angles, a grid that could extend as the settlement grew, impeded only by geography. About three decades into colonization of the New World, the conquistadores started to build and plan cities according to laws prescribed by the monarchs in the Laws of the Indies. In addition to describing other aspects of the interactions between the Spanish conquerors and the natives they encountered, these laws ordained the specific ways new settlements should be laid out. In addition to specifying the layout, the laws also required a pattern in settlement based on social standing, in which the people of higher social status lived closer to the center of the town, the center of political, ecclesiastical, and economic power. The 1790 census for Mexico City indicates that in the traza that there was indeed a higher concentration of Spaniards (españoles), but that there was no absolute racial or class segregation in the city, particularly since elite households usually had non-white servants.

The grid was not limited to Spanish settlements; however, "Reducciones" Indian Reductions and "Congregaciones" were created in a similar grid-like manner for Indians in order to organize these populations in more manageable units for purposes of taxation, military efficiency and in order to teach Indians the way of the Spanish.

Modern cities in Latin America have grown, and consequently erased or jumbled the previous standard spatial and social organization of the cityscape. Elites do not always live closer to the city center, and the point-space occupied by individuals is not necessarily determined by their social status. The central plaza, the wide streets and a grid pattern are still common elements in Mexico City and Puebla de Los Angeles. It is not uncommon in modern-founded towns, especially those in remote areas of Latin America, to have retained the "checkerboard layout" even to present day.

Mexico City is a good example of how these ordinances were followed in laying out a city. Previously the capital of the Aztec empire, Tenochtitlan was captured and placed under Spanish rule in 1521. After news of the conquest, the king sent instructions very similar to the aforementioned Ordinance of 1513. In some parts the instructions are almost verbatim to his previous ones. The instructions were meant to direct the conqueror—Hernán Cortés—on how to lay out the city and how to allocate land to the Spaniards. It is pointed out, however, that though the king might have sent many such orders and instructions to other conquistadores, Cortés was perhaps the first one to implement them. He insisted on carrying out the building of a new city where the Indian Empire had stood, and he incorporated features of the old plaza into the new grid. Much was accomplished since he was accompanied by men familiar with the grid system and the royal instructions. The point here is that Cortés accomplished the planning and was on his way to finish the building of Mexico City before the royal ordinances addressed specifically to him even arrived. Men like Cortés and Alonso García Bravo (who is also called "the good geometer"), played a crucial role in creating a city scape of New World cities as we know them.

Church and mission architecture
In places of dense indigenous settlement, such as in Central Mexico, the mendicant orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians) built churches on the sites of prehispanic temples. In the early period of the "spiritual conquest", there were so many indigenous neophytes who attended Mass that a large open-air atrium was built, walling off a space within the church complex to create an enlarged sacred space without great expense of building. Indigenous labor was used in construction; since a communities sacred place was a symbol and embodiment of that community, laboring to create these structures was not necessarily an unwanted burden. Since Mexico experienced many sixteenth-century epidemics that drastically the size of the central Mexican indigenous population, there were often elaborate churches with few Indians still living to attend them, such as the Augustinian church at Acolman, Mexico. The different mendicant orders had distinct styles of building. Franciscans built large churches to accommodate the new neophytes, Dominican churches were highly ornamented, while the Augustinian churches were characterized by their critics as opulent and sumptuous.

Mission churches were often of simple design. As mendicants were pushed out of central Mexico and as Jesuits also evangelized Indians in northern Mexico, they built mission churches as part of a larger complex, with living quarters and workshops for resident Indians. Unlike central Mexico, where churches were built in existing indigenous towns, on the frontier where indigenous did not live in such settlements, the mission complex was created.

Spanish East Indies
he arrival of the Spaniards in 1571 brought in European colonial architecture to the Philippines. Specifically suited for the hot tropics of the new Far east territory, European architecture was transposed via Acapulco, Mexico into a uniquely Filipino style. The Nipa hut or Bahay Kubo of the Indigenous Filipinos gave way to the Bahay Na Bato (stone house) and other Filipino houses collectively called Bahay Filipino (Filipino houses) and became the typical houses of Filipinos in the past. The Bahay Filipino houses, followed the nipa hut's arrangements such as open ventilation and elevated apartments. The most obvious difference between Filipino houses would be the materials that was used to build them. Bahay na bato has Spanish and Chinese influence. Its most common appearance is like that of stilt Nipa hut that stands on Spanish style stone blocks or bricks as foundation instead only just of wood or bamboo stilts, usually with solid stone foundations or brick lower walls, and overhanging, wooden upper story/stories with balustrades Ventanillas and capiz shell sliding windows, and a Chinese tiled roof or sometimes Nipa roof which are today being replaced by galvanized roof. Today these houses are more commonly called Ancestral houses, due to most ancestral houses in the Philippines are Bahay na bato.

Earthquake Baroque is a style of Baroque architecture found in the Philippines, which suffered destructive earthquakes during the 17th century and 18th century, where large public buildings, such as churches, were rebuilt in a Baroque style. In the Philippines, destruction of earlier churches from frequent earthquakes have made the church proportion lower and wider; side walls were made thicker and heavily buttressed for stability during shaking. The upper structures were made with lighter materials.

Bell towers are usually lower and stouter compared to towers in less seismically active regions of the world. Towers have thicker girth in the lower levels, progressively narrowing to the topmost level. In some churches of the Philippines, aside from functioning as watchtowers against pirates, some bell towers are detached from the main church building to avoid damage in case of a falling bell tower due to an earthquake.

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Spa architecture

Spa architecture (German: Kurarchitektur) is the name given to buildings that provide facilities for relaxation, recuperation and health treatment in spas. The architecture of these buildings is called "spa architecture" even though it is not a uniform architectural style, but a collective term for a genre of buildings with a spa function.

This type of building first appeared in Europe in the 17th century and had its heyday in the 19th century. The term spa architecture relates especially to buildings in the healing spas inland; those on the coast, the seaside resorts, developed their own resort architecture (German: Bäderarchitektur). However, since the early 19th century there have been many parallels of architectonic expression between inland spas and coastal resort spas.

Early predecessors in antiquity and the Middle Ages
There were spas even in classical antiquity. They owed their emergence to the healing properties of hot springs which were already known at that time. In the centre of Roman spas there were thermae or Roman baths, that were generally less symmetrical than the great imperial baths in their towns, such as the Baths of Diocletian and Caracalla, because they had to conform to the topography of the terrain in which the thermal springs were located. The most important Roman spa was Baiae in the Bay of Naples. In German the spas of Aachen, Wiesbaden, Baden-Baden and Badenweiler were founded in the first century A.D. In Switzerland, St. Moritz first boomed with the discovery of its healing spring by Paracelsus.

After this initial flowering, interest in bathing for healing purposes subsided for a while in Europe. No large bath complexes were built during the Middle Ages on the scale that had been seen in antiquity. The Crusaders brought Islamic spa culture back with them from the Orient. With the rise of the bourgeoisie in the towns during the 12th century, public baths were built; however they did not have their own unique architectural expression and, externally, could not be distinguished from residential town houses. The great period of public bathing culture in the Middle Ages ended with the Thirty Years' War.

15th to 18th centuries
Spa culture experienced a boom in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries and became an important economic factor. When it gained further importance in the second of the 17th century, drinking of the waters became the fashion instead of the hitherto popular bathing culture. If a spa town could not keep pace with this development and carry out the costly building measures needed, it resorted to simpler immersion bathing facilities (the Armenbäder and Bauernbäder). Important ancient spas such as Baden-Baden and Wiesbaden were affected in this way.

In the baroque era there were important new developments in the guise of aristocratic bathing facilities (the Fürstenbädern). Their origins could be found in the castles. The best preserved example in Germany is Brückenau. Prince-bishop Amand of Buseck began extending the town in 1747. On a terraced hill around three kilometres from the town a spa house (Kurhaus) was built. A lime avenue framed by a pavilion ran from the valley up to the palace-like building, forming a central axis. The prototype for the spa at Brückenau was the maison de plaisance of Château de Marly, which was built from 1679 to 1687 by Louis XIV.

The most important spa towns of the 18th century are not the relatively small princely baths, but Bath in England and Aachen in Germany. Both towns played a decisive part in the development of spa architecture in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Spa culture in Aachen recovered during the late 17th century from the consequences of the Thirty Years' War. A key influence here was the spa doctor, François Blondel who, through his books on balneology, made Aachen renown throughout Europe

Special Gothic

Special Gothic (German: Sondergotik) is the style of Late Gothic architecture prevalent in Austria, Bavaria, Saxony and Bohemia between 1350 and 1550. The term was invented by art historian Kurt Gerstenberg in his 1913 work Deutsche Sondergotik, in which he argued that the Late Gothic had a special expression in Germany (especially the South and the Rhineland) marked by the use of the hall church or Hallenkirche. At the same time the style forms part of the International Gothic style in its origins.

The style was contemporaneous with several unique local styles of Gothic: the flamboyant in France, the perpendicular in England, the Manueline in Portugal, and the Isabelline in Spain. Like these, the Sondergotik showed an attention to detail both within and without. In many Sondergotik buildings, fluidity and a wood-like quality were stressed in carving and decoration, particularly on vaults. The rib patterns of Sondergotik vaults are elaborate and often curved (in plan), sometimes using broken and flying ribs (features extremely rare in other regions). Outside, the buildings tended towards mass buttressing.

Among the most famous Sondergotik constructions is Saint Barbara Church in Kutná Hora (modern Czech Republic), built by the Parlers, a family of masons.

Description 
The Gothic architecture in Germany is distinguished from elements that, in France , praying in Gothic, are necessarily unusual. It distinguishes itself from the French models and their system, and by means of reductions, and also by means of plugins.

In the architecture of the pillows , but also outside of it has been abandoned in various countries in Europe on the introduction and further development of the Gothic in the elements of a complete cathedral construction. This reducing Gothic style has spread around 1300 and has created certain preconditions for the Gothic architecture in Germany . To the reductions it belongs to the excavation of a corridor , an absidewaters and triforium , in addition, after the construction of the cathedrals in Strasbourg and Cologne, as well as decorations, the capitals do not exist at all. The use of simple round or eyelid backbacks instead of complicated cascade cells makes the appearance cool. The adaptation of the height of the sideways to the mainstream , that is to say, the development of a hallway with its spacious, balanced interior creates a new space space that appears as an alternative to the basement cathedral building. As tops are the halls of Annaberg and Schneeberg in Saksujo as well as Dinkelsbühl and Nördlingen in Bavaria .

Unlike Gothic cathedrals in France, the German parish church buildings are uniquurable. The turmoil construction increasingly and more striking is a distinction of a particular German development. Enrichments are mainly found in the post-lagoon. They are particularly concerned with the increasingly complex forms of vaults , baskets and ribs. Typical are star, net and masovolves, as well as sowie spiral pilasters.

The German gothic buildings are encompassable:

hawkers
paddle churches with a basilic scheme
brick buildings
As long as in the north of Germany the nave is located under single roofs, in Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg a single roof covers the whole church.

Characteristic 
The German special gothic is characterized by elements that are quite uncommon in France , the country of origin of the Gothic. It differs from the French models and their system both through reductions and enrichments.

In the construction of the mendicant orders , but also outside of these, in many countries of Europe, the introduction and further development of the gothic originating in France is being renounced in many places on elements of complete cathedral construction. This style of expression, described by German art historians ( Georg Dehio ) as a " reduction gothic " spreads around 1300 and creates certain conditions for the German special gothic. The reductions include the elimination of ambulatory , chapel wreath and Triforium , also is waived (after the construction of the Strasbourg Cathedral and the Cologne Cathedral ) on the Wimperge . Capitals are missing completely. The use of simple round or octagonal columns instead of complicated bundle pillars calms the appearance.

The adaptation of the height of the aisles to the nave , that is, the development of the hall church with its wide, balanced interior creates a new type of space, which appears as an alternative to basilikale cathedral construction.

The twin towers of the bishop churches, which are common in France, face the inlaid towers of the city parish churches . The ever-increasing tower is considered a special feature of German development. Enrichments occur especially in late Gothic. In particular, they concern the increasingly complicated forms of vaults , services and ribs. Typical are star, net and Schlinggewölbe as well as spiral-shaped pillars.

Division 
The buildings classified in the German special gothic can be divided into three groups:

Hall churches
Bettelordenskirchen (according to the basilical scheme)
brick buildings
While in North Germany the naves are under individual roofs, in Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg the entire church is covered by a single roof.

Although Gerstenberg's thesis of a special gothic indoor space as an epochal special achievement of a Germanic "race" is long since recognized as one-sided and socio-historically wrong , the term went into the vocabulary of late gothic research, without being critically scrutinized.

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Soft Portuguese style

The Soft Portuguese style (Portuguese: Estilo Português Suave) is an architectural model used in public and private buildings in Portugal, essentially during the 1940s and the early 1950s. This architectural style is also known as Nationalistic style, Traditionalistic style and New State style, but this last denomination is not very correct, since during the Portuguese New State Regimen diverse architectural styles have been applied in public buildings.

History
Portuguese Suave was the result of the ideas of several Portuguese architects who, from the beginning of the 20th century, looked to create "genuine Portuguese Architecture". One of the mentors of this style was the architect Raul Lino, creator of the theory of the "Portuguese house". The result of this current was the creation of a style of architecture that used the modernist engineering characteristics, masked by a mixture of exterior aesthetic elements borrowed from the ancient and traditional architecture of Portugal.

The Portuguese New State, an authoritarian nationalist regime resulting from the 1926 revolution and led by Oliveira Salazar, embarked upon a wide-ranging public works policy, beginning in the 1930s. Initially, in new public buildings, a monumental modernist style prevailed, with Art Deco characteristics. However, after the Portuguese World Fair in 1940, whose chief architect was Jose Cottinelli Telmo, the Portuguese Government started to prefer a nationalistic style for its new public constructions. This style was used in all types of public buildings, from small rural elementary schools to big secondary schools and university campuses, military barracks, courts of justice, hospitals, town halls and so on.

Beyond Portugal, this style was also wide used in public buildings of the Portuguese overseas territories of Africa, Asia and Oceania. The style was also very popular in the private sector, being used in all types of buildings, from the small family homes to blocks of flats, hotels, office blocks, commercial and industrial buildings.

The style was severely attacked by a great number of young architects who accused it of being provincial and devoid of imagination. Its nickname, by which it was most commonly known, "Portuguese Suave", was given to it ironically by its critics, who had compared it to a brand of cigarettes of the same name. The biggest blow to the style was struck by the 1948 1st Portuguese National Congress of Architecture, which meant that it gradually came to be abandoned for both public and private works. From the mid-50s, state-sponsored public works started using more modernist architectural styles.

Despite criticism by many intellectuals, the Portuguese Suave style proved to be popular, corresponding to the tastes of a segment of the Portuguese people. Its characteristics, although attenuated, have returned and can be seen in numerous private buildings built since the 1990s.

Influences
The Portuguese Soft Style came from a chain of architects who, since the beginning of the 20th century , sought to create a "genuinely Portuguese" architecture. One of the mentors of this chain was the architect Raul Lino , theorizer of the Portuguese house . The result of this trend was the creation of a style of architecture that used the modernist characteristics of engineering, disguised by a mixture of exterior aesthetic elements drawn from the Portuguese architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries and the traditional houses of the various regions of Portugal.

Estado Novo , a political regime led by Oliveira Salazar , who emerged from the 1926 revolution, began a large-scale public works policy beginning in the mid -1930s . Initially, in the new public buildings constructed, the modernist style prevailed, with monumental elements of art deco , such as the Instituto Superior Técnico , the National Statistical Institute and the National Liceu de Beja .

However, especially since the Portuguese World Exhibition in 1940 , whose chief architect was José Cottinelli Telmo , the Nationalist Style began to be favored in the new public buildings. This style was used in all types of buildings, from small rural primary schools to large secondary and higher schools, through military barracks, courts, hospitals, city councils, etc. Besides Portugal, this style was also widely used in public buildings in the Portuguese overseas territories of Africa, Asia and Oceania. The style also achieved great popularity in the private sector, and is also used in all types of buildings in this environment, from single-family homes to apartment buildings, through office buildings, shops and even industry.

The style was heavily attacked by a large number of architects, who accused him of being provincial and devoid of imagination. The designation, by which the style eventually became unofficially known, " Portuguese Suave ", was ironically given to it by its critics, who compared it to a homonymous brand of cigarettes [ citation needed ] . The greatest blow in style was given at the First National Congress of Architecture of 1948 , which led to it being progressively ceased to be used in public and private constructions. From the mid -1950s , the public works promoted by the Estado Novo returned to privileging modernist architecture.

Despite the criticism of the intellectuals, the Portuguese Suave Style was very popular, corresponding to the taste of many Portuguese. Its characteristics, although attenuated, have been present in numerous private buildings, especially since the 1990s .

Characteristics
The typical buildings of this style were a turning point with regard to the national civil construction. What until then had been very traditionalist and retrograde has come to rely on the latest international technical innovations. The introduction of new and modern engineering techniques, such as the use of concrete structures and the beam - pillar system, have revolutionized not only the way of building, but also the way of thinking about buildings. Common buildings, like most dwellings, were designed and designed by unskilled masters; from that time, progress was being made in this direction, assigning the work of dimensioning the structure to a specialized technician. However, all this modernism was not accepted in the same way as in the rest of Europe , more towards the future and for modernity, since the Portuguese government at the time was very puritanical and conservative. To this extent modern technique was disguised by classical ornamental elements, in a gesture of cultural obstruction to internationalist progressivism .

The ornamental elements present in the style are taken from the architecture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the traditional architecture of the various Portuguese regions. These inspirations came mainly from the studies of Raul Lino. Typically, decorative elements such as rustic stone, punches, wedges and sashes are used, sloping water roofs with eaves and red tile, false cornices, pinnacles , pilasters on balconies, etc. It is also common the existence of arches and towers of medievalist evocation with coruchéus (pyramidal or conical) topped with armillary spheres (symbolizing the empire), or with wind vents, more present in the villages. Colonnades also play an important role in the architectural elements of the Portuguese Soft Building. The verticality of this, and the fact that they repeat along the façade, provoke a very austere and strong entrance space; this characteristic is used mainly in administrative and judicial buildings (ministries, courts, etc.) for the role they represented in the day-to-day society of the time.

Functional types 

Palaces of Justice 
This type of building is considered, together with the Paços do Concelho , the "noble type" of the Portuguese Soft . They are usually characterized by a hard volumetry, using colonnades and large porticoes to impose their monumentality. There is a symbolic concern to associate with the architecture of these buildings the idea of judicial power (intrinsically linked to state power) coupled with an austere and classic spirit. A good example of the described characteristics is the Palace of Justice of Porto (1961), where the colonnades assume a fundamental role with respect to the global ideology that the building must make appear; the almost violent austerity and monumentality make this palace of justice one of the most representative of this functional type.

City councils 
The buildings of the city councils are part, together with the Palaces of Justice, the "noble type" of the Portuguese Suave . Comparing the two typologies, the City Hall is more eclectic , that is to say, it has a more liberated form, not so attached to the ideas of power and austerity of judicial buildings (although closely linked to these expressions). They are also associated with a more historical and nationalist theme; sometimes there are on the facades, or on the porches , illustrative panels relating to various aspects of city life such as the work or the history thereof. An example of a munipal chamber of this style, although not very representative, is the building of the town hall of Póvoa de Lanhoso ;  This building is connected to the local domus pragmatically joining the two noble buildings of the village.

General Boxes of Deposits and Credits and Providence
This type of building was fundamental in the economy of the cities and towns of the country. They were usually located in the center of the localities, so that access was the fastest for any inhabitant of the area. They were built with the aim of looking quite solid and resilient due to the natural feeling they should give to the people, that the money was safe. There are several typologies throughout the Portuguese territory; from the facet of urban solar , to the typical classic building, with large turrets surmounted by tall coruhos. The building of the general box of deposits of Santarém shows well the austere, but sober, character of this functional type. The tower and tall windows give the public the much needed sense of security that must always be associated with a building of these.

Buildings of CTT 
The Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones are a special case in the architecture of this time. The fact that during the 30s and 40s , a single architect was responsible for designing and performing these works, Adelino Nunes , left little room for great technical and formal innovations, reflected in the poor diversity. This results in the ability to divide the various facilities built around the country, because the high number of buildings is interrelated. There are 3 types of levels of CTT buildings:

Simple level - for humbler settlements, in a more historical-regionalist style. An example of this is Fafe's CTT.
Medium level - for towns with a certain importance, or small towns, in a more modern and innovative style. The north is characterized by granite and to the south by the whitewashed walls. Two examples, one for each case, are the Correios de Valença , to the north, those of Évora to the south.
Palaces of the Post Office - for large cities, in an eclectic style that mixes both regionalism, modernity and monumentality. The most relevant example of this type of building is the Palácio dos Correios in Lisbon .

Schools 
The primary schools of this time were part of a project known as Rogério de Azevedo's Centennial Schools . The architect drew up a standard plan describing how to build the school. There were small variants that tried to somehow fit the buildings in the architectural panorama of the place where they were; Southern schools were characterized by arches and whitewashed walls (most of the houses in the south are whitewashed since the times of Muslim occupation ), and to the north by the porches and the use of granite.

High schools were based on a quite different idea from primary schools. These were installed in large mansions with sixteenth and sixteenth-century airs with large arches and roofing tiles. Like primary schools, most of these buildings were of mixed education; to this extent, and according to the ideas of the time, the boys and girls frequented different sides of the establishment making them symmetrical. Some of these schools were associated with neighborhoods, such as the school in Ajuda neighborhood . In what I say to universities , how they assumed a much larger size and say they are treated as urban groups.

Religious works 
The sanctuary of Fatima was the greatest religious work of the regime. In general, churches constructed in this style were stylized in concrete. A work still to be emphasized is the Christ-King in Almada .

Monuments and Infrastructures 
There was a demand by the state to assert itself on a large scale associated with the need to perform major works of basic equipment (water, sewage, electricity, road network). As examples of monument we have the Luminous Fountain in Lisbon. In terms of infrastructure there is the dam of Castelo de Bode and Ponte 25 de Abril (Ponte Salazar initially), which came to solve a problem that from the beginning of the century needed a solution - connecting the two banks of the Tagus.

Housing 
Housing was one of the major problems of the Salazarist regime in the capital. The population of Lisbon increased from year to year and there was a need to build places to house all these people. This process has been approached in several ways depending on the type of customer. The houses are divided into three categories: income buildings and single-family or semi-detached houses , social neighborhoods .

The buildings of yield are symmetrical volumes, where they use traditional materials, little salient and with smooth facades. At the same time, more progressive buildings of the same type appeared in the technology used ( reinforced concrete , pillars-beams-slab system), but traditional in the architectural expression they have. Characterized by stone basements, framed windows of chest, balcony spans with wrought iron decorative balcony, roofs roofing (use of coruchéus sometimes) and colonnades of stone on the facade.

Single-family dwellings are typically constituted by a wide roof covering with eaves, a facade painted white or light colors, use of stone in the frames of the span, wooden doors usually painted green and a covered porch or avarandados covered with tile. Sometimes there are some works in tiles or ceramics with traditional motifs, wrought iron pieces (flower boxes, wind vane and gates).

The social neighborhoods (or residential complexes) were large organized clusters of "economic houses" (or "Economic Rents") consisting of single-family houses, or more commonly, semi-detached houses. The social neighborhoods were erected in more disqualified zones of the city. The first neighborhood, which served as prototype of the neighborhoods included in the project of Duarte Pacheco , New Neighborhoods , was the Salazar District , better known as Bairro do Alvito (1938). Apart from the neighborhoods of low-income houses, there were also elementary neighborhoods , such as Bairro Alto da Serafina ; and also neighborhoods of prefabricated houses , such as the Caselas neighborhood and the districts that were left unfinished during the First Republic , such as the Arco do Cego Neighborhood, were completed .

Main authors 
Adelino Nunes, Carlos Ramos, Carlos Rebello de Andrade,Cassiano Branco,Cottinelli Telmo,Cristino da Silva,Guilherme de Rebello Andrade,João Simões,Jorge Insured,Keil do Amaral,Pardal Monteiro,Paulino Montez,Raul Rodrigues Lima,Rogério de Azevedo,Vasco Regaleira,Veloso Reis Camelo

Construction of urban fronts
Between 1930 and 1940 Duarte Pacheco launched an extensive program of construction of urban fronts in order to avoid a disorderly growth of the city and the proliferation of poor quality architecture. A first plan was drawn up which was intended to house thousands of people on the outskirts of the city; was designed by Paulino Montez a pioneer neighborhood between the Tapada da Ajuda and Alcântara that would have the name of Salazar. The symmetrical geometry of the streets and the organization of the various spaces: housing, equipment and green spaces were the main characteristics of this neighborhood. The houses were mostly twinned, and there were also some small buildings. The flat terraces represented well the cubist modern inspiration of the architect. However, the general neo-traditional taste reconverted these roofs into typical tile roofs. From this, until the 1940s , eight other neighborhoods with the same characteristics appeared, the most important being the Incarnation and Madre de Deus .

During the 1940s and 1950s, two types of residential urbanization took place at the western end of the city: modest houses and large luxury villas. Part of them, deeply inspired by the typology of Raul Lino's Portuguese House .

Exhibitions of the World 
In 1940, Duarte Pacheco, was put to the test in the Exhibition of the Portuguese World, that had a deeply ideological role in the national life and of the capital of the Empire . Animated by Pacheco and directed by Cottinelli Telmo was a brilliant company of all the arts. In addition to its impact on the life of the city, spectators of precarious party architecture, the exhibition brought about transformations in Praça do Império and a plan of great official buildings. The Portuguese World Exhibition included thematic pavilions related to Portugal's history, economic activities, culture, regions and overseas territories.

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Soejoedi Wirjoatmodjo

Soejoedi Wirjoatmodjo (December 27, 1928 in Surakarta - June 17, 1981 in Jakarta) was an architect in Indonesia who was active during the late 1960s and mid 1970s. In 1964, he was asked by President Sukarno to be in charge as chief architect for national architectural projects in the Jakarta. Soejoedi is considered to be the first native architect of the Post-Colonial period that is considered as a proponent of modernist architects and designers.

Biography
Soejoedi was born in Surakarta in 1928. As a young man, he supported nationalist ideals. During the period of National Revolution, Soejodi joined the Student Fighters of Brigade 17 in Surakarta to counter military offensive from the Dutch between 1945 to 1949. When the Dutch leave Indonesia in 1949, one year later Soejoedi applied as an architect in the Building Department of the Technical College in Bandung, which still had a professional Dutch lecturer. From the quality of his works, Soejoedi was nominated and won a scholarship from the French government for a study in L’Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris in 1955. He pursued his study in Paris, but he did not feel comfortable because of personal reason of homesick. Soejoedi's mentor in Bandung, Prof. Ir. Vincent Rogers van Romondt, arranged his further study at the Technical College of Delft, the Netherlands so that he did not need to start from scratch. During his study, Soejoedi had the opportunities to see the works of Dutch modern architects e.g. Jacob Bakema and Aldo van Eyck. However, he did not work his design thesis at the college. Instead, he worked part time as drafter at Kraijvanger Architekten, at that time a small firm. For the bureau, he worked for Rotterdam city reconstruction.

Political circumstances over West New Guinea increased tension between Indonesia and the Netherlands. These forced several Indonesian students to leave the Netherlands in 1957, including Soejoedi, who had to leave before being able to receive a degree in architecture. Soejoedi had to find somewhere else for the completion of his academic qualification in architectural engineering. In the same year, Soejoedi moved to Berlin to pursue his architectural degree in the Technical University of Berlin. He eventually graduated in 1959 with a design thesis on pesantren, the Islamic boarding school and training center, with the best marks.

Meanwhile the increasing tension between the Dutch and the Republic of Indonesia as a consequence of President Sukarno's policy for taking over all foreign companies by the state corporations, caused harm on the higher education institutions, mainly because most of the teaching staff were Dutch nationals. The country needed qualified locals like Soejoedi to work in colleges and other institutions. In 1960, Soejoedi returned from Germany to Indonesia and worked in Bandung as lecturer. After few months, Soejoedi was promoted to be head of the department of architecture at his institution, now renamed the Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB).

During his tenure as head of department, he emphasised the use and exploration of modern technology for building construction and material, especially concrete and steel structure. Between 1960 and 1964, he designed and built several buildings and family houses in Bandung. As a lecturer, he taught about artistic approachs. Form, function, and material are necessarily to be integrated as a geometrical and sculptural composition that works for specific purpose and context, and a strong embodiment to site.

In 1964, Soejoedi was called by President Sukarno to be in charge as chief architect for national architectural projects in Jakarta. As a nationalist, he took this request very seriously. He brought some colleagues and students from the institute and established his own firm in Jakarta, PT. Gubahlaras, in 1969. The vision of his firm is to unveil modern Indonesia through architectural endeavor.

Design philosophy
Soejoedi believed in architectural modernity as a vehicle of liberation from the traces of colonialism. He introduced Indonesian locality not as an imitation of traditional icons, forms, and styles; but in the search for spatial principles. He placed the Javanese concept of spatial category into his design: the balance of the realm of outside (jaba) and inside (njero), and the gradation of values from preliminary (purwa), intermediary (madya), and inner sanctum (utama or ndalem).

Soejoedi's design is characterized with pure geometrical composition. He put emphasize on the site of his building, making sure that the building is harmonious with the plot where the building stood. Unlike Silaban's grand design e.g. the Istiqlal Mosque, Soejoedi tried not design something that seems too grandeur or megalomaniac. Soejoedi realized that architecture is not a pure work of art, but also a public and utilitarian endeavor with respect to aesthetic and human experience such as: safety, comfort, and health. In this regard, Soejoedi always tried to open the dialogue between reason and intuition; for him architecture is the field and playground for both human faculties in the search for something humanly useful and beautiful.

Post-colonial architecture works
Among Soejoedi's work is the Conference of the New Emerging Forces, the Conefo (1964-1983). For this work, Soejoedi interpreted President Sukarno's intention for an image of a total independence from the East communist block and the West democratic capitalist block by designing a modern complex with no recognizable traces of precedent buildings.

Another of Soejoedi's project, probably the most infamous, is Duta Merlin Hotel project. The project was designed to replace the colonial hotel of Hotel des Indes, a masterpiece of Indies architect F.J.L. Ghijsels which was designed as an extraordinary adaptation of Art Deco in the tropical climate of Java, then known as the New Indies Style. For Soejoedi, establishing a new architecture for a national pride was probably more important than maintaining an old building with traces of colonialism of the past.

Below are some of Soejoedi's project.

ASEAN Secretariat Building, Jakarta (1975)
Balai Sidang Senayan, Jakarta (1960-1965)
Department of Agriculture complex, Jakarta
Department of Forestry Tower (Manggala Wana Bhakti), Jakarta (1977)
the Republic of Indonesia’s Embassy, Kuala Lumpur
French Embassy, Jakarta (1971, demolished in 2012)
Gedung Pusat Grafika, Jakarta (1971)
Office of the Ministry of Transportation
Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Air Sutami
the Republic of Indonesia’s Embassy, Belgrade
the Republic of Indonesia’s Embassy, Colombo

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Sod house

The sod house or "soddy" was a successor to the log cabin during frontier settlement of Canada and the United States. The prairie lacked standard building materials such as wood or stone; however, sod from thickly-rooted prairie grass was abundant. Prairie grass had a much thicker, tougher root structure than modern landscaping grass.

Construction of a sod house involved cutting patches of sod in rectangles, often 2'×1'×6" (60×30×15 cm) and piling them into walls. Builders employed a variety of roofing methods. Sod houses accommodate normal doors and windows. The resulting structure was a well-insulated but damp dwelling that was very inexpensive. Sod houses required frequent maintenance and were vulnerable to rain damage. Stucco or wood panels often protected the outer walls. Canvas or plaster often lined the interior walls.

History:
Plagne huts were found in the poorest areas of the Netherlands, especially in Drenthe , Friesland and Overijssel and adjacent areas, such as Groningen Westerwolde , Frisian Het Bildt and Frisian Woods . Shaggy huts also existed in the peat areas in Flanders. Settling huts were inhabited by the poorest workers, often with large families. A turf hut was a simple structure, usually partially excavated and without side walls so that the roof started at ground level. The roof was covered with plagues that were taken from the surrounding land. It is often said that it was an unwritten rule that a new turf hut was allowed to stay if it was built between sunset and sunrise and the chimney smoked in the morning. However, this is a myth.

Settle huts often stood in peat extraction areas . They were used for centuries as shelter for peat laborers. Also the underlying peat layer had to be removed and construction of stone houses only took place when the peat had been excavated down to the underlying sandy soil. Peat owners and companies dug the peat areas down to the sandy soil, and the peat under a hut was sold out when it was ready. At the end of the 19th century, at the beginning of the 20th century, the turf hut came into use on a large scale as a home for the poor. The cabins were to be found on the undivided heathlands that lay outside the esdorpen, often in the vicinity of large peatlands where a surplus of workers arose at the end of the 19th century. The living conditions were miserable. Due to the construction method the room was bad to heat, it was damp and it was crawling with vermin. Residents of turf huts did not grow old.

The housing law in 1901 forbade the living in turf huts. Replacement dwellings were only offered on a limited basis. After the Second World War a large-scale housing program was started and the last turf huts disappeared.

Last turf huts
The last turf hut in Drenthe, on the Eerste Groene Dijk south of Emmer-Erfscheidenveen , disappeared in 1949. One of the last fossilized turf houses there was demolished in 1960 at the Pikveld near Barger-Erfscheidenveen , followed by a copy in Nieuw Dordrecht in 1965.  In 1982, the last petrified slaughterhouse disappeared when the front house of Leemdijk 26 in Smilde was demolished.   In Friesland is not exactly known when the last spitkeet disappeared: In Jubbega, after the Second World War, there were still a few of the districts there.  In 1962 another petrified dump was demolished at the Doktersheide in Tieke , but this was no longer a real spit.  At that time there were still a number of wooden shacks in that region, which are sometimes also referred to as 'spit chain'.

In some places in the Netherlands, tourists can spend the night in a specially built and furnished sod hut.

Notable sod houses
Sod houses that are individually notable and historic sites that include one or more sod houses or other sod structures include:

Iceland
Skagafjordur Folk Museum, Turf/Sod houses of the burstabær style in Glaumbær
Arbaer Folk Museum

Canada
Addison Sod House, a Canadian National Historic Landmark building, in Saskatchewan
L'Anse aux Meadows, the site of the pioneering 10th-11th century CE Norse settlement near the northern tip of Newfoundland, has reconstructions of eight sod houses in their original locations, used for various purposes when built by Norse settlers there a millennium ago

United States
Cottonwood Ranch, Sheridan County, Kansas. The ranch site, listed in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), included a sod stable
Dowse Sod House, near Comstock, Nebraska; NRHP-listed and operated as museum
Heman Gibbs Farmstead, Falcon Heights, Minnesota; the NRHP-listed site includes a replica of the original 1849 sod house
Jackson-Einspahr Sod House, Holstein, Nebraska, NRHP-listed
Leffingwell Camp Site, Flaxman Island, Alaska, listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places (NRHP)
Minor Sod House, McDonald, Kansas, NRHP-listed
Pioneer Sod House, Wheat Ridge, Colorado, NRHP-listed
Gustav Rohrich Sod House, Bellwood, Nebraska, NRHP-listed
Sod House (Cleo Springs, Oklahoma), also known as Marshall McCully Sod House, NRHP-listed
Sod House Ranch, Burns, Oregon, (does not include a sod house)
Wallace W. Waterman Sod House, Big Springs, Nebraska, NRHP-listed

Source From Wikipedia

Slow architecture

Slow architecture is a term believed to have grown from the slow food movement of the mid-1980s. Slow architecture is generally architecture that is created gradually and organically, as opposed to building it quickly for short-term goals. It is often combined with an ecological, environmentally sustainable approach.

Slow architecture could also be interpreted literally to mean architecture that has taken a very long time to build, for example the Sagrada Família, in Barcelona.

When Eduardo Souto de Moura won the 2011 Pritzker Prize, a jury member described his buildings as slow architecture, because it required careful consideration to appreciate its intricacies. Professor Kenneth Frampton said "Souto de Moura's work is sort of more grounded in a way... They have their character coming from the way in which they have been developed as structures." 2012 Pritzker winner Wang Shu was described as "China's champion of Slow architecture".

Slow architecture examples
Canada
Professor John Brown of the University of Calgary has launched a not-for-profit website designed to promote "slow homes". This follows 10 years of research. A slow home is described as attractive, in harmony with the neighbourhood, and energy efficient, using a smaller carbon footprint.

China
Pritzker Prize winning architect Wang Shu has been described as "China's champion of Slow architecture" His buildings evoke the densely packed architecture of China's older cities, with intimate courtyards, tilting walls and a variety of sloping roofs. "Cities today have become far too large. I’m really worried, because it’s happening too fast and we have already lost so much" he says.

Ireland
The slow architecture project in Ireland launched a touring exhibition by canal boat in 2010. The boat travelled between seven locations over a six-week period, with artists and architects holding workshops and lectures at each stopping point.

United States
In 2008 architects from leading US practices took part in a San Francisco-based project called Slow Food Nation. They created constructions that were generally food-related and ecologically motivated, including a variety of pavilions, a water station made from recycled bottles, a compost exhibit and a "soapbox" for farmers.

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Sino-Portuguese architecture

Sino-Portuguese architecture (Chinese: 中葡建築, Thai: สถาปัตยกรรมจีน-โปรตุเกส or ชิโนโปรตุกีส) is a hybrid architecture style incorporating Chinese and the Portuguese architecture styles. The style was traditionally common in wealthy urban centers where Chinese settlers lived in southern China and the Malay Peninsula, with a myriad of examples found across present day Peninsular Malaysia (i.e. George Town, Penang, Alor Setar, Kuala Terengganu, Kuantan, Ipoh, Kuala Lumpur, Klang, Seremban, Malacca), Southern Thailand (Phuket, Ranong, Krabi, Takua Pa, Phang Nga or Trang and Satun), Singapore, Macau and Hainan (primary Haikou).

History Sino-Portuguese of Phuket
Phuket is the old town or it was called the Old Phuket Town. Phuket has a rich history as a tin - mining country of the Siamese. The era of Western imperialism by 1511 (i.e. 2054), Portuguese settlers came to Phuket and the trade area port of Malacca. They have embraced western culture as well as western science and religion. They have built houses and their architectural style. Portuguese employs Chinese people to build houses and establishment for them. Houses and the establishment of Portuguese have mixed between Portuguese art and Chinese art together

Style of Sino-Portuguese
The characteristics of Chinese architecture - Portuguese architecture is a mix of European and Chinese art or namely "colonial architecture". These older buildings were built by the Chinese, quality of construction has the design (painting) in Chinese format, but the structure of construction is Portuguese format. The construction majority theme is a two-storey commercial building or one floor. The wall has strength because wall gets to the weight of the tiles on the roof. Construct use roof curved tiles of architecture of Chinese. The pillar and structure have used art, Renaissance and neo-classical are European came to build.

Commercial building
Commercial building built at the in the 20th century (Since 1850). Commercial building is two-storey and one floor, followed usability of them. A large building will be the highest official office province governor. But will be open to the public and other special occasions. A home is a place for the whole family to remember both residential and business by front of house (the building) is used for trading and upstairs the rest is a private space.

The mansion
The mansion built on age King Rama V (1853–1910). The mansions is a 2 storyies building with a large brick wall and plaster with cement thick very strong. The mansion has interior decoration garishly and mansion uses architecture Portuguese in building a majority. One type is unique and distinctive of architecture is what the Mansion style European by it was built by Hokkien Chinese, them call is the Angmor-Lao.

Conservation
When 1994 (i.e. 2537), city municipal of Phuket, state agency, and private organization take part conservation of the Phuket old town. They promote to people in Phuket for them to recognizing the value of Sino-Portuguese architecture and history of the Phuket town. Conservation Sino-Portuguese specify an area of about 210 acres in this area is a local environmental art by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment issued a declaration. They promote the development of the building in its original form in order to the uniqueness of the Phuket town. Phuket owned building or building repair their house. There is encouragement to residents who conserve their own homes by getting certificate city municipal.

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Simon House, Mount Eliza

Simon House is at 33 Daveys Bay Road, Mount Eliza in Melbourne, Australia. The house was constructed in the 1960s during the period of architectural experimentation on materiality and structure in houses. Simon House was the first project received on the day when Guilford Bell and Neil Clerehan opened their office in South Yarra. The Simons were Clerehan’s partners but the house was a collaboration of partners. Therefore, the house has a mixture of both Clerehan and Bell’s typical style of architecture.

Description

The house is a single-storey house, planned in a rectangular shape. The house consists of five bedrooms, two toilets, two garages, one kitchen, dining room, living room, pool and terrace. The enclosed pool, natural finishes, glazed wall and an extensive view over the bay recalled contemporary Californian house of architects like Craig Ellwood.

Design Approach

The central core program of the house was a pool and terrace, positioned right in the centre of the house. With the pool and terrace in the centre with programs surrounds  that engaged with it, allows family members to gather together. It was said that was one of Clerehan’s conception of the house where how he deal with the provision of a frame for family life. The pool and living room aligned on axis, forming the central part of a symmetrical square plan. Then the programs around the pool were given a corresponding position in the house’s spatial hierarchy. Because of this distinct insistence of having an equivalent position of programs, the programs are mirrored and consist of dual garages and entrances. It was said that was one of Bell’s typical style of architecture.

Bell has been influenced by the architecture and gardens of Japan. As a countryman, he feels, when in the city, a hunger for the freedom of sky and vegetation. He thinks that a building must stand in spectacular relationship to its environment. With the pool and terrace positioned in the centre of the house, the engagement between the indoor and outdoor spaces then became ambiguous. It creates a sense of feeling when one is inside, it will feels like outdoors and when one is outside it will feels like indoors. One of his design principal was that he thinks of views or views from the building first, instead of the form of the building. Therefore, glass panels are used across the living and dining areas to capture the view of the bay.

Current

Unfortunately, one of the garage have been renovated into a main entrance, also as a living room. Another garage is built right opposite the existing garage. In this approach, it loses the spatial qualities of the house but in turn allows a convenient use to the owner in the house’s circulation.

Materiality

The materiality that uses in the house were unadorned, they are fibrous plaster ceiling left in natural, unpainted stated, flat steel decking roof, timber walls, and reinforced concrete floor slab under concrete block.

Awards

Neil Clerehan and Guilford Bell has received numerous honours for his architectural works while they were practicing architecture. The Simon House was the most prominent work of Bell Clerehan partnership. The home beautiful considered the pool, terrace to be one of Australia’s outstanding outdoor areas. The Simon house won the Victorian Architecture Medal in 1963-1964.

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Sikh architecture

Sikh architecture

Sikh Architecture is a style of architecture that is characterized with values of progressiveness, exquisite intricacy, austere beauty and logical flowing lines. Due to its progressive style, it is constantly evolving into many newly developing branches with new contemporary styles. Although Sikh architecture was initially developed within Sikhism its style has been used in many non-religious buildings due to its beauty. 300 years ago, Sikh architecture was distinguished for its many curves and straight lines; Shri Keshgarh Sahib and the Sri Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) are prime examples.

A gurdah (in panxhab language: ਗੁਰਦੁਆਰਾ, Gurduārā or ਗੁਰਦਵਾਰਾ, gurdvārā , which means 'door to the Guruja') is the place of worship of Sikis ;  However, in gurdvarat sikemi are welcomed people of all faiths as well as those who do not exercise any such.  Gurdvara has a Sahib Darbar where the present and permanent Guru of the Sikhs is placed, the scripture Guru Granth Sahibi on a Takhat (a raised throne) in a prominent central position. Raag (singing Raga) recite, sing and explain, verses from Guru Granth Sahibi , in the presence of the holy gathering. All gurdvarat have Langar hall, where people can eat vegetarian meals free of charge.  A gurdare can also have a library, nursery and learning room.  Gurpahara can be identified by the distance between the high flag poles that carry Nishan Sahib, the Sikh flag. The most famous Gurdvara is Harmandir Sahibi (popularly known as the Golden Temple) in Amritsar, Punjab, India.

History

The first Gurdvara was built at Kartarpur on the banks of the Ravi River in the Punjab region in today's Pakistan from the first Scythian guru, Guru Nanak Devi, in 1521. He is now in the Western Narayal Pakistan Narayal district. The worship centers were built as a place where they could gather to hear the gurus give spiritual lessons and sang the religious hymns in worship of Wahegurus. As the population continued to grow, Guru Hargobindi, the sixth guru, introduced the word gurdvara . The etymology of the term 'gurdvara' derives from the words' stone (ਗੁਰ) '(a reference to the Sikha gurus) and' dvara (ਦੁਆਰਾ) ', which together mean the' gate through which gurus can be reached '.  After that all the places of worship Sheikh began to be known as gurdvara. Some of the most prominent Sikhe shrines set by Sikha gurus are:

Nankana Sahibi, located in the 1490s by the first Sikh guru, Guru Nanak Devi, in Punjab, Pakistan .

Sultanpur Lodhi, accredited in 1499, became Sikhe center during the time of Guru Nanak Devi in ​​the Kapurthala district of Punjab, India .

Kartarpur Sahibi, set in 1521 by the first Sikh stone, Guru Nanak Devi, near Ravi River, in Narva, Punjab, Pakistan.

Khadur Sahibi, located in 1539 the second Sikh guru, Guru Angad Devi, near Beas River, in the Amritsar district of Indian Punjab.

Goindwal Sahibi, set in 1552 by the third Sikh guru, Guru Amar Dasi, near Beas River, Amritsar district of Indian Punjab.

Sri Amritsar, set in 1577 by the fourth Sikh guru, Guru Ram Dasi, in the Amritsar district of the Indian Punjabi.

Tarn Taran Sahibi, set in 1590 by the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Devi, Tarn Taran Sahib district, Indian Punjabi.

Kartarpur Sahibi, set in 1594 by the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Devi, near Beas River, Jalandhar district, Indian Punjabi.

Sri Hargobindpuri, located by the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Devi, near Beas River, Gurdaspur district, Indian Punjabi.

Kiratpur Sahibi, set in 1627 by the sixth Sikh guru, Guru Hargobindi, near Sutlej River, Ropar district, Indian Punjabi.

Anandpur Sahibi, set in 1665 by the sixth Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahaduri, near the Sutlej River, Indian Punjabi.

Paonta Sahibi, set in 1685 by the Ten Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singhu, near Yamuna River, in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh.

From the beginning of the twentieth century, a number of Sikhs gilltons in British India were under the control of Udas mahanti (clerics).  The Gurdarves Reformation Movement of the 1920s resulted in the Gurdwara Parbandhak Shiromani Committee that took control of these gurdvaras.

Description 

Not every place where Guru Granth Sahibi is placed and treated with the due respect according to Sikh Rehat Maryadas (Sikh code of conduct and customs) can be considered a 'gurdvarë'. The main functions that take place in all the main gurdvaras on a daily basis include:

Shabad Kirtanin: that is the singing of the hymns by Granthi Sahibi , most Shabadet by Guru Granth Sahibi , Dasam Granthi, and compositions by Bhai Gurdasi and Bhai Nand Lali, can be performed within a gurdware. It is inappropriate to sing hymns of popular rhythmic ringtones or other melodies.

Paathi: That is the religious preaching and reading of Gurbani by Guru Granth Sahibi , with their explanation. There are generally two types of Paathesh: Akhand Paathi and Sadharan Paathi.

Sangati and Pangati: Providing a free community cooking like a langar  for all visitors, regardless of the faith, region, culture, race, caste or class that is part of.

Along with these functions, gurhdes around the world serve as centers of the Sikh community in many other ways including the functioning as Sikhe library libraries and schools to teach children Gurmukhi, hostility to Sikhe scriptures, and organization of charitable activities in a wider community from the Siqs. In gurdwara there are no images, statues or religious paintings. The essential feature of a gurdware is the presence of the sacred book and the eternal Sikh guru, Granth Sahibi .  The Sikhs have a high respect for the teachings and ordinances of Granth Sahibi . A gurdwara has a main darbar hall , a free kitchen for the community called langar , and some other services. A gurdwara is identified by the high poles of Nishan Sahib, the Sikh flag. Many of the historical gurdvaras associated with the lives of Sikha gurus have a sarovar (ecological pond) present for washing. The marriage ceremony of Sheikh, called Anand Karaj, is carried out within a gurdvare. The Sikhs also perform some of their rites of mortal ceremonies (Antam Sanskar) within the gurdala. It is also the focal point of important Sikh holidays, with the exception of Nagar Kirtani, which is a Sikh procession of sacred anthems from the whole community. These processions begin and end in a gurdah.

Archduke of Gurdare 

Unlike worship places in some other religious systems, stone buildings do not have to follow any set of architectural designs. The only required requirements are: Granth Sahib 's placement, under a tent or a tent throne, usually a platform higher than the floor on which the believers stand and a high hanging flag at the top of the building. Later, more and more gurdwara (especially India ) have imitated the model of Harmandir Sahib , a synthesis of Indo-Persian and Sheikh Architecture. Most of them have square rooms, stand on a higher plinth, have access to all four wings having a square or octagonal sanctuary usually in the middle. Over the past decades, in order to meet the demands of larger gatherings, larger gathering rooms with better air, with the sanctuary in the end have begun to become a general style. The location of the saint is mostly in a place that allows a space for circus (ritual walk around the sanctuary). Sometimes, to enhance the space, verandahs are built at the edge of the hall. A popular cube pattern is a lily lily crowned with an ornamental pendant. Bow tops, kiosks and cubes are used for outdoor decorations.

Darbar Sahibi 

Darbar Sahibi refers to the main hall within a Sikhe gurbuare . This hall where the scripture stands, Guru Granth Sahibi (the present and eternal guide of the Sikhs), set on a stool or throne in a prominent central position.

Worship in Darbar Sahib takes the path in Divan's hall or prayer room. In the sofa, people are found singing worship worship by Granthi Sahibi. Guru Granth Sahibi is the highest spiritual guide Sikh and treated as if he were a living guru. People who visit Gurdara sit on the floor often cross-legged, as if they head their feet to an object or person, in this case Guru Granth Sahibi, may be confused or disrespectful according to cultural norms. It is also commonplace and optional posture for deep meditation. Moreover, sitting on the floor is seen as a symbol of equality among all people. Instead of standing in the chair, anyone sits on the floor so nobody is higher than the others. Traditionally, women and children as well as men sit on different wings of the sofa. However, sitting down on a mixed pattern in front of Guru Granth Sahib is not forbidden. The Guru Granth Sahib is placed on pillows, having 'beautiful ebony' placed above them, which are on a raised platform that has a canopy. Cohat, called Romalla, covers Guru Granth Sahib when he is not being read. This is located opposite the sofa room, where there is also another raised platform where the musicians sit down and play their instruments (called Ragi) while the congregation sings hymns. Music is an important part of Sikh worship as it helps when people are singing hymns that are written at Guru Granth Sahibi. The Hymns written in the Guru Granth Sahibi are called Gurbani, which means: the words of the gurus .

Harmandir Sahibi 

Sri Harmandir Sahibi (the dwelling of God ) (also called Sri Darbar Sahibi ), and informally considered as the "temple of the Lord" (in the proverbial language: ਹਰਿਮੰਦਰ ਸਾਹਿਬੀ), also called Sri Darbar Sahibi (in Probable language: ਦਰਬਾਰ ਸਾਹਿਬ, dəɾbɑɾ sɑhɪb) Golden, "  is the most sacred Gurdvara of Sikhism , located in the city of Amritsar, Indian Punjab. Amritsar (literally the deposit of the nectar of eternity ) was founded in 1577 by the fourth Sikh guru, Guru Ram Dasi.  Fifth Guru Sikh, Guru Arjani, projected the Harmandir Sahib to be built in the center of the sacred deposit, and until his construction, Adi Granthi, the sacred Sikhist script, placed within Harmandir Sahibi.  Harmandir Sahib Complex is also the home of Akal Takht, the sixth guru, Guru Hargobindi. While Harmandir Sahibi is regarded as the house of the spiritual attribute of God, Akal Takhti is the land of God's earthly authority.  The construction of Harmandir Sahib was planned to be a place of worship for men and women of all vital and social backgrounds, even believers of other religions would be welcomed and worshiped in a similar way to God.  In this way, as a gesture of this non-sectarian commotion of Sikhism, Guru Arjani specifically invited the Sufi Muslim saint, Sai Mian Mirin, to lay the foundation stone of Harmandir Sahib.  The four entrances (representing the four directions) to enter Harmandir Sahib also symbolize the Saqha's opening to all men and beliefs.  Over 100,000 people visit the holy shrine every day for worship, and also to participate jointly in the Meal and Free Community Cuisine ( Langari ) despite the differences, a tradition that is the distinctive feature of all Sikh Gurdwarve.  The current Gurdvara was rebuilt in 1764 by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia with the help of other Sikha thinkers. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Maharaja Ranjit Singhu secured the Punjab region from the outbreak and covered the top floor of the gurdwar with gold, giving it a distinctive appearance and its popular name.

History 

Harmandir Sahib means the Temple of God. Guru Amar Dasi ordered Guru Ram Das to create a nectar deposit as a place of worship for Sikh faith. Guru Ram Dasi instructed everyone to join the works, under the supervision of Bhai Budhas and engage workers to help them. The Father said that the nectar deposit should be God's home, everyone who could bathed in it should provide all spiritual and worldly advantages. During the progress of the works, the hut on which the first garrison stood was expanded as his residence; now known as the mahale or palace of the gurus.  In 1578, Guru Ram Dasi dug a deposit, which later became known as Amritsar (the Nectar of Eternity Basin),  giving its name to the city that ran around it. Through time, Harmandir Sahibi,  was built with this deposit and became the main center of Sikhism. His sanctuary was made to accommodate Adi Granthi, which includes compositions of Sikha gurus and other saints considered to have the values ​​and principles of Sikhism, such as Baba Faridi and Kabiri. The design of Adi Granth was started by the fifth guru of Sikhism, Guru Arjani.

Construction 

Guru Arjani conceived the idea of ​​creating a central place of worship for the Sikhs and designed the architecture of Harmandir Sahib. The earliest plans to excavate the sacred deposit (Amritsar or Amrit Sarovari) was marked by Guru Amar Dasi, the third Sikh guru, but was implemented by Guru Ram Dasi under the supervision of Baba Budhas. Land for the construction site was provided by previous Guru Sahibs paid or free by the Zamindars (landowners) of the local villages. The plan to build a civic residence was also done, and the construction work for the Sarovar (deposit) and township started simultaneously in 1570. The works on both projects were completed in 1577.

In December 1588, Guru Arjani started building the gurdare and the foundation stone was set by Hazrat Mian Miri on December 28, 1588.       Gurdvara was completed in the year 1604. Guru Arjani placed Guru Granth Sahibin in him and appointed Baba Buddha as his first granty in August 1604. In the mid-18th century he was attacked by Afghans by one of Ahmed Shah Abdali's generals, Jahan Khani and had to be thoroughly rebuilt in the 1760s. However, in response, a Sikh army was sent to pursue Afghan force. The forces met five miles outside Amritsar where the Jahan Khan army was destroyed.

Architectural features

Some of the architectural features of Harmandir Sahib were created as symbols of the Sikh worldview.  Instead of the normal habit of building a stone on a high place, it was built to a lower level than the surrounding terrain so believers have to go down the stairs to enter it.  Moreover, instead of an introduction, Sri Harmandir Sahibi has four entrances.  Gurdvara is surrounded by Sarovar, a large lake or sacred deposit, consisting of Amrit ("holy water" or "eternal nectar") and is supplied by the river Ravi. For gurdvara there are four entrances, which symbolize the importance of acceptance and openness. In the complex there are three sacred trees ( ber ), each symbolizing a historical event or a saint Sikh. Within the gurdvaru there are many commemorative plaques commemorating historical, historic, sacred, martyrs and martyrs, including memorial gravals of all soldiers dead dead fighting in World War I and II.

Many of the current decorative plaster and marble works date back to the early 19th century. All the work in the field and marble was developed under the patronage of Hukam Singh Chimnit and Emperor Ranjit Singh, Maharaja of the Sheikh Panjabi Empire. Arch Darshani Deorhi stands at the beginning of the pavement for Harmandir Sahibi; it is 6.2m high and 6m wide. Harmandir Sahib's coat of arms was started by Ranjit Singhu and was completed in 1830. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was an important donor to the shrine. The Harmandir Sahib Complex also includes Akal Takht (the elite of the Infinite ), built by the sixth Sikh guru, Guru Hargobindi as an authority for the administration of justice and consideration of earthly affairs. Within the complex, Akal Takhti is a counterpoint to the sacred shrine, in that Harmandir Sahibi is the dwelling of the spiritual attribute of God and Akal Takhti is the seat of God's earthly authority.

Habits 

Many gurdvara are designed to reduce men's wings and womens to the other, though designs overshadow and seat segments are not mandatory. They generally sit together but in the detached wings of the hall, both at the same distance from Guru Granth Sahibi, as a sign of equality. Believers are offered Karah Parshad in the hall, usually given in the hands collected by a sewadar (a volunteer of the gurdvaras). In the liver's room, food is cooked and served in the community by volunteers. Only the vegetarian food is served in the langar's hall, to accommodate visitors from different backgrounds so that no one remains offended. All people belonging to different faiths sit together to share a common meal, regardless of any dietary restriction. The main philosophy behind Langar is twofold: to offer teaching to engage in Seva and as an opportunity to serve the community from all of the backgrounds and help in removing all the differences between the rich and the deaf high and low.

Sikh Architecture in Karnataka

The earliest Gurdvara in Karnataka was Gurdwara Nanak Jhira in Bidar. It was built in the style of traditional Sikh architecture, in a sacred place in Bidar. It is also called Nanak Jhira, where Jhira means there is a source of water. The legend says Guru Nanaku stopped there on his way to Sri Lanka in 1512. During that time, Bidar residents were suffering from a lack of water. A fresh water spring came out of the hills through the spiritual power of Guru Nanakut. A committee developed work for Gurudvara Nanak Jhira Sahibin with the construction of three central floors completed in 1966, including the historical source of Nanak Jhiras deified by Guru Nanaku. Source water is collected in 'Amrit-Khud' (a deposit), built in white marble.  There is a Sikh museum, built in the memory of Guru Teg Bahadur, featuring important events of Sikh history through paintings and other images.  Built in Cycladic architecture, Gurdvara is a vibrant mix of Mogule and Raxutian Architecture . Onion shaped cubes, multi-leaf bows, mated columns, ornamental works, frescoes, etc. are of a Mogul style, more particularly of Shah Jahan's Period, while balcony windows, shelves held by brackets, hatches , rich ornamental friezes, etc., are elements derived from Rhapsody Architecture as seen in Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner and other places in Raxhastan.  In addition to the above Gurudvar in Bidar, Bangalore also has Gurudvara built in the twentieth century. Guru Nanaku, Guru Sikh, was the first to visit Bengaluru. On his way back from Sri Lanka he banned in Bangalore. Kempegowda, the builder of Bangalore, met him and asked for his blessing. Guru Nanaku not only blessed Kempegowdan but also told him to develop the country.  But it took many more years to build a gurudvaras like in Bangalore. Now in Bangalore there are three gurudvara. The first and largest gurudvara in Bangalore, near Lake Ulsoor on Kensington Street, is an elegant white structure that opened on April 13, 1946. It was recently reconstructed with marble floors.

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Side passage plan architecture

Side passage plan architecture is an architectural style. The Spencer Buford House and the Dr. Urban Owen House are historic houses in Tennessee that are examples of this style.

Spencer Buford House
The Spencer Buford House is a property in Thompsons Station, Tennessee, United States, that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988. The main house was built about 1813. The property is also known as Roderick, in honor of the horse Roderick, a favorite horse of Confederate cavalry and irregular forces Nathan Bedford Forrest.:25

It was a two-story brick side Side passage plan farmhouse built c.1820. It is unusual in Williamson County for the side passage plan. Its "doorway displays excellent Federal detailing." It was built of bricks made by slaves in kiln on the farm.

Besides the house the property included one non-contributing building. The listing was for an area of 6.4 acres (2.6 ha).

The property was covered in a 1988 study of Williamson County historical resources.

In November 2015 the house was evaluated as having lost its historic integrity, because it had been altered with "unsympathetic" additions that subsumed much of the original house, and yet lost the interior details in the original portion retained.

It was removed from the National Register in 2015.

Dr. Urban Owen House
The Dr. Urban Owen House is a property in College Grove, Tennessee that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988. When listed the property included one contributing building and one non-contributing structure on an area of 2.2 acres (0.89 ha).

According to a 1988 study of Williamson County historical resources, the house is a "good example" of a "house with vernacular designs with fine Eastlake and Queen Anne decoration" and associated with a prominent resident of Williamson County.

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Shoebox style

In architecture, shoebox style refers to the functionalist style of modern architecture characterised by predominantly rectilinear, orthogonal shapes, with regular horizontal rows of windows or glass walls.

Along the same analogy, it refers to undistinguished styles of apartment houses, such as dingbat apartments.

The puritan and repetitive shoebox style is seen as a way to low-cost construction.

The term "shoebox style" is also applies to concert halls of rectangular shape, as opposed to the traditional circular amphitheatre/arena/horseshoe shapes.

In architecture, the shoebox style describes a functionalist style of modern architecture characterized by a predominance of straight lines and orthogonal shapes, with horizontal rows of windows or glazed facades.

The term "shoebox" may also refer to the style of some mass-produced dwellings, such as Dingbat Apartments architecture.

This simple and repetitive scheme is considered characteristic of low-cost construction.

The term "shoe box style" is also applicable to rectangular-shaped concert halls, as opposed to the traditional architecture of these halls often in amphitheater, circle or horseshoe.

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Shipping container clinic

A shipping container clinic is a type of shipping container architecture using intermodal containers (shipping containers) as the structural element of a medical clinic that can be easily deployed to remote regions of the world. Shipping containers are ideal because of their inherent strength, wide availability and relatively low cost. In addition, and most relevant, shipping containers can be deployed anywhere in the world with the clinic already assembled within the container. This means pop-up clinics can be operational within days after deployment.

Shipping container architecture is a form of architecture using steel intermodal containers (shipping containers) as structural element. It is also referred to as cargotecture, a portmanteau of cargo with architecture, or "arkitainer".

The use of containers as a building material has grown in popularity over the past several years due to their inherent strength, wide availability, and relatively low expense. Homes have also been built with containers because they are seen[who?] as more eco-friendly than traditional building materials such as brick and cement.

Shipping container clinic

A shipping container clinic is a type of shipping container architecture using intermodal containers (shipping containers) as the structural element of a medical clinic that can be easily deployed to remote regions of the world. Shipping containers are ideal because of their inherent strength, wide availability and relatively low cost. In addition, and most relevant, shipping containers can be deployed anywhere in the world with the clinic already assembled within the container. This means pop-up clinics can be operational within days after deployment.

History
Several organizations have developed the concept of shipping container clinics:

In 2005, Hospitals of Hope produced a "Clinic In A Can" in a 45-foot trailer that was sent to Les Cayes, Haiti to provide medical relief. The 45 foot trailer is converted into five medical rooms, with each one being approximately 70 square feet. The container has since helped Hospitals of Hope provide care to over 30,000 residents of Haiti.

In 2006, Pulitzer Prize winning author, Laurie Garrett, worked with Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute to create a prototype "Doc In A Box" based on Garrett's conceptual framework.

In June 2010, Hospitals of Hope sent two "Clinic In A Cans" to Haiti in partnership with Heart to Heart International in response to the earthquake. The containers were both 40 foot long and cost around $12,000 to build.

In November 2010, Containers 2 Clinics sent a prototype clinic to be used on site at Grace Children's Hospital in Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
In April 2011, a three-unit Clinic In A Can was shipped to Haiti in partnership with Aslan Youth Ministries. This small hospital will be operated by Aslan Youth Ministries, an organization working in the north-east of Haiti. With a fault line running right under where they work, steel shipping containers are much safer than a concrete structure.

In August 2012, Clinics4All established its Global Clinic Donation Program (GCDP) to provide MEDICAL CLINICS free of charge to third-world Governments through their respective departments or Ministries of Health – as a means of assisting developing country Governments in improving access to healthcare in medically under-served and remote areas, particularly for children and women.

In March 2013, Clinic In A Can shipped a solar powered clinic to Mirebalais, Haiti in partnernship with Global Vision Citadelle Ministries, as well as a radiology Clinic In A Can to Freetown, Sierra Leone.

In July 2013, Arkitainer opened its doors as a UK based company specialising in the use of shipping containers for various community based projects. A recent proposal for a residential community complete with clinics, schooling and vocational training for Cape Town is currently underway.

Advantages

Customized
Due to their shape and material, shipping containers can be easily modified to fit any purpose.

Strength and durability
Shipping containers are designed to be stacked in high columns, carrying heavy loads. They are also designed to resist harsh environments, such as on ocean-going vessels or sprayed with road salt while transported on roads. Due to their high strength, shipping containers are usually the last to fall in extreme weather, such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and tsunamis.

Modular
All shipping containers are the same width and most have two standard height and length measurements and as such they provide modular elements that can be combined into larger structures. This simplifies design, planning and transport. As they are already designed to interlock for ease of mobility during transportation, structural construction is completed by simply emplacing them. Due to the containers' modular design, additional construction is as easy as stacking more containers. They can be stacked up to 12 units high when empty.

Labor
The welding and cutting of steel is considered to be specialized labor and can increase construction expenses, yet overall it is still lower than conventional construction. Unlike wood frame construction, attachments must be welded or drilled to the outer skin, which is more time consuming and requires different job site equipment.

Transport
Because they already conform to standard shipping sizes, pre-fabricated modules can be easily transported by ship, truck, or rail.

Availability
Because of their wide-spread use, new and used shipping containers are available across the planet.

Expense
Many used containers are available at an amount that is low compared to a finished structure built by other labor-intensive means such as bricks and mortar — which also require larger more expensive foundations.

Eco-friendly
A 40 ft shipping container weights over 3,500 kg. When upcycling shipping containers, thousands of kilograms of steel are saved. In addition when building with containers, the amount of traditional building materials needed (i.e. bricks and cement) are reduced.

Disadvantages

Temperature
Steel conducts heat very well; containers used for human occupancy in an environment with extreme temperature variations will normally have to be better insulated than most brick, block or wood structures.

Lack of flexibility
Although shipping containers can be combined together to create bigger spaces, creating spaces different to their default size (either 20 or 40 foot) is expensive and time consuming. Containers any longer than 40 feet will be difficult to navigate in some residential areas.

Humidity
As noted above, single wall steel conducts heat. In temperate climates, moist interior air condenses against the steel, becoming clammy. Rust will form unless the steel is well sealed and insulated.

Construction site
The size and weight of the containers will, in most cases, require them to be placed by a crane or forklift. Traditional brick, block and lumber construction materials can often be moved by hand, even to upper stories.

Building permits
The use of steel for construction, while prevalent in industrial construction, is not widely used for residential structures. Obtaining building permits may be troublesome in some regions due to municipalities not having seen this application before. However, in the US certain shipping container homes have been built in outside of the city's zoning code; this meant no building permits were required.

Treatment of timber floors
To meet Australian government quarantine requirements most container floors when manufactured are treated with insecticides containing copper (23–25%), chromium (38–45%) and arsenic (30–37%). Before human habitation, floors should be removed and safely disposed. Units with steel floors would be preferable, if available.

Cargo spillages
A container can carry a wide variety of cargo during its working life. Spillages or contamination may have occurred on the inside surfaces and will have to be cleaned before habitation. Ideally all internal surfaces should be abrasive blasted to bare metal, and re-painted with a nontoxic paint system.

Solvents
Solvents released from paint and sealants used in manufacture might be harmful.

Damage
While in service, containers are damaged by friction, handling collisions, and force of heavy loads overhead during ship transits. The companies will inspect containers and condemn them if there are cracked welds, twisted frames or pin holes are found, among other faults.

Roof weaknesses
Although the two ends of a container are extremely strong, the roof is not. A limit of 300 kg is recommended.

Containers are in many ways an ideal building material because they are strong, durable, stackable, cuttable, movable, modular, plentiful and relatively cheap. Architects as well as laypeople have used them to build many types of buildings such as homes, offices, apartments, schools, dormitories, artists' studios and emergency shelters; they have also been used as swimming pools. They are also used to provide temporary secure spaces on construction sites and other venues on an "as is" basis instead of building shelters.

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