Assyrian art

Assyrian art is characterized by its large-scale, narrative relief carvings, and sculptures that depict the power, military victories, and religious beliefs of the Assyrian empire. These artworks, often found in palaces and temples, served both decorative and symbolic purposes, showcasing the empire's strength and divine favor. 

Assyrian art is renowned for its detailed relief carvings, often in gypsum alabaster, that adorned palace walls and city gates. These carvings depicted scenes of warfare, hunting, religious deities, and daily life, with a strong emphasis on the king's heroic deeds and victories. Alongside the visual imagery, Assyrian art frequently incorporated written inscriptions, often in cuneiform, that provided context and further emphasized the king's achievements and lineage. 

Individual relief panels were often combined to tell a larger story, allowing viewers to follow the narrative through the sequence of images. Assyrian art was rich in political and religious symbolism. The carvings often depicted the king's divine right to rule and the power of Assyrian gods. 

Figures were sometimes depicted using composite views, where different body parts were shown from different perspectives (e.g., a profile face with a forward-facing eye). Assyrian artists often used hieratic scale, where the size of figures was determined by their importance, with the king typically depicted as the largest figure. Assyrian art also featured intricate patterns on clothing, weapons, and other objects, demonstrating the high level of craftsmanship.

Assyrian art adorned both public spaces like palace walls and private spaces like the king's living quarters, demonstrating the empire's reach and the king's power. Lamassu figures, These large, winged, human-headed bull or lion figures served as protective guardians at entrances to palaces and temples. 

Assyrian sculpture

Assyrian sculpture is the sculpture of the ancient Assyrian states, especially the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911 to 612 BC, which was centered around the city of Assur in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) which at its height, ruled over all of Mesopotamia, the Levant and Egypt, as well as portions of Anatolia, Arabia and modern-day Iran and Armenia. It forms a phase of the art of Mesopotamia, differing in particular because of its much greater use of stone and gypsum alabaster for large sculpture.

Much the best-known works are the huge lamassu guarding entrance ways, and Assyrian palace reliefs on thin slabs of alabaster, which were originally painted, at least in part, and fixed on the wall all round the main rooms of palaces. Most of these are in museums in Europe or America, following a hectic period of excavations from 1842 to 1855, which took Assyrian art from being almost completely unknown to being the subject of several best-selling books, and imitated in political cartoons.

The palace reliefs contain scenes in low relief which glorify the king, showing him at war, hunting, and fulfilling other kingly roles. Many works left in situ, or in museums local to their findspots, have been deliberately destroyed in the recent occupation of the area by ISIS, the pace of destruction reportedly increasing in late 2016, with the Mosul offensive.

Other surviving types of art include many cylinder seals, a few rock reliefs, reliefs and statues from temples, bronze relief strips used on large doors, and small quantities of metalwork. A group of sixteen bronze weights shaped as lions with bilingual inscriptions in both cuneiform and Phoenician characters, were discovered at Nimrud. The Nimrud ivories, an important group of small plaques which decorated furniture, were found in a palace storeroom near reliefs, but they came from around the Mediterranean, with relatively few made locally in an Assyrian style.

Palace reliefs

The palace reliefs were fixed to the walls of royal palaces forming continuous strips along the walls of large halls. The style apparently began after about 879 BC, when Ashurnasirpal II moved the capital to Nimrud, near modern Mosul in northern Iraq. Thereafter, new royal palaces, of which there was typically one per reign, were extensively decorated in this way for the roughly 250 years until the end of the Assyrian Empire. There was subtle stylistic development, but a very large degree of continuity in subjects and treatment.

Compositions are arranged on slabs, or orthostats, typically about 7 feet high, using between one and three horizontal registers of images, with scenes generally reading from left to right. The sculptures are often accompanied with inscriptions in cuneiform script, explaining the action or giving the name and extravagant titles of the king. Heads and legs are shown in profile, but torsos in a front or three-quarters view, as in earlier Mesopotamian art. Eyes are also largely shown frontally. Some panels show only a few figures at close to life-size, such scenes usually including the king and other courtiers, but depictions of military campaigns include dozens of small figures, as well as many animals and attempts at showing landscape settings.

Campaigns focus on the progress of the army, including the fording of rivers, and usually culminates in the siege of a city, followed by the surrender and paying of tribute, and the return of the army home. A full and characteristic set shows the campaign leading up to the siege of Lachish in 701; it is the "finest" from the reign of Sennacherib, from his palace at Nineveh and now in the British Museum. Ernst Gombrich observed that none of the many casualties ever come from the Assyrian side. Another famous sequence there shows the Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal, in fact the staged and ritualized killing by King Ashurbanipal of lions already captured and released into an arena, from the North Palace at Nineveh. The realism of the lions has always been praised, and the scenes are often regarded as "the supreme masterpieces of Assyrian art", although the pathos modern viewers tend to feel was perhaps not part of the Assyrian response.

There are many reliefs of minor supernatural beings, called by such terms as "winged genie", but the major Assyrian deities are only represented by symbols. The "genies" often perform a gesture of purification, fertilization or blessing with a bucket and cone; the meaning of this remains unclear., Especially on larger figures, details and patterns on areas such as costumes, hair and beards, tree trunks and leaves, and the like, are very meticulously carved. More important figures are often shown larger than others, and in landscapes more distant elements are shown higher up, but not smaller than, those in the foreground, though some scenes have been interpreted as using scale to indicate distance. Other scenes seem to repeat a figure in a succession of different moments, performing the same action, most famously a charging lion. But these were apparently experiments that remain unusual.

The king is often shown in narrative scenes, and also as a large standing figure in a few prominent places, generally attended by winged genies. A composition repeated twice in what is traditionally called the "throne-room" (though perhaps it was not) of Ashurbanipal's palace at Nimrud shows a "Sacred Tree" or "Tree of Life" flanked by two figures of the king, with winged genies using the bucket and cone behind him. Above the tree one of the major gods, perhaps Ashur the chief god, leans out of a winged disc, relatively small in scale. Such scenes are shown elsewhere on the robe of the king, no doubt reflecting embroidery on the real costumes, and the major gods are normally shown in discs or purely as symbols hovering in the air. Elsewhere the tree is often attended to by genies.

Women are relatively rarely shown, and then usually as prisoners or refugees; an exception is a "picnic" scene showing Ashurbanipal with his queen. The many beardless royal attendants can probably be assumed to be eunuchs, who ran much of the administration of the empire, unless they also have the shaved heads and very tall hats of priests. Kings are often accompanied by several courtiers, the closest to the king probably often being the appointed heir, who was not necessarily the oldest son.

The enormous scales of the palace schemes allowed narratives to be shown at an unprecedentedly expansive pace, making the sequence of events clear and allowing richly detailed depictions of the activities of large numbers of figures, not to be paralleled until the Roman narrative column reliefs of the Column of Trajan and Column of Marcus Aurelius.

Lamassu

Lamassu were protective minor deities or spirits, the Assyrian version of the "human-headed bull" figure that had long figured in Mesopotamian mythology and art. Lamassu have wings, a male human head with the elaborate headgear of a divinity, and the elaborately braided hair and beards shared with royalty. The body is that of either a bull or a lion, the form of the feet being the main difference. Prominent pairs of lamassu were typically placed at entrances in palaces, facing the street and also internal courtyards. They were "double-aspect" figures on corners, in high relief, a type earlier found in Hittite art. From the front they appear to stand, and from the side, walk, and in earlier versions have five legs, as is apparent when viewed obliquely. Lamassu do not generally appear as large figures in the low-relief schemes running round palace rooms, where winged genie figures are common, but they sometimes appear within narrative reliefs, apparently protecting the Assyrians.

The colossal entrance way figures were often followed by a hero grasping a wriggling lion, also colossal and in high relief; these and some genies beside lamassu are generally the only other types of high relief in Assyrian sculpture. The heroes continue the Master of Animals tradition in Mesopotamian art, and may represent Enkidu, a central figure in the ancient Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh. In the palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad, a group of at least seven lamassu and two such heroes with lions surrounded the entrance to the "throne room", "a concentration of figures which produced an overwhelming impression of power". The arrangement was repeated in Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh, with a total of ten lamassu. Other accompanying figures for colossal lamassu are winged genies with the bucket and cone, thought to be the equipment for a protective or purifying ritual.

Lamassu also appear on cylinder seals. Several examples left in situ in northern Iraq have been destroyed in the 2010s by ISIL when they occupied the area. Colossal lamassu also guarded the start of the large canals built by the Assyrian kings. In the case of temples, pairs of colossal lions guarding the entrances have been found.

Construction

There are outcrops of the "Mosul marble" gypsum rock normally used at several places in the Assyrian realm, though not especially close to the capitals. The rock is very soft and slightly soluble in water, and exposed faces degraded, and needed to be cut into before usable stone was reached. There are reliefs showing quarrying for Sennacherib's new palace at Nineveh, though concentrating on the production of large lamassu. Blocks were extracted, using prisoners of war, and sawed into slabs with long iron saws. This may have happened at the palace site, which is certainly where the carving of orthostats was done, after the slabs had been fixed into place as a facing to a mud-brick wall, using lead dowels and clamps, with the bottoms resting on a bed of bitumen. For some reliefs an "attractive fossiliferous limestone" is used, as in several rooms in the South-West Palace at Nineveh. In contrast to the orthostats, the lamassu were carved, or at least partly so, at the quarry, no doubt to reduce their enormous weight.

The alabaster stone is soft but not brittle, and very suitable for detailed carving with early Iron Age tools. There can be considerable differences in style, and quality, between adjacent panels, suggesting that different master carvers were allocated these. Probably the master drew or incised the design on the slab before a team of carvers laboriously cut away the background areas and finished carving the figures. Scribes then set out any inscriptions for cutters to follow, after which the slab was polished smooth, and any paint added. Scribes are shown directing carvers in another relief (on the Balawat Gates) showing the creation of a rock relief; presumably they ensured that the depiction of royal and religious aspects of the subjects was as it should be.

The reliefs only covered the lower parts of the walls of rooms in the palaces, and higher areas were often painted, at least in patterns, and at least sometimes with other figures. Brightly coloured carpets on the floor completed what was probably a striking decor, largely in primary colours. None of these have survived, but we have some door-sills carved with repeated geometric motifs, presumed to imitate the carpets.

After the palaces were abandoned and lost their wooden roofs, the unbaked mud-brick walls gradually collapsed, covering the space in front of the reliefs, and largely protecting them from further damage from the weather. Relatively few traces of paint remain, and these are often on heads and faces – hair and beards were black, and at least the whites of eyes white. Possibly metal leaf was used on some elements, such as small scenes shown decorating textiles. Julian Reade concludes that "It is nonetheless puzzling that more traces of painting [on sculpture] have not been recorded".

Other narrative reliefs

Apart from the alabaster wall reliefs, all found in palaces, other objects carrying relatively large reliefs are bronze strips used to reinforce and decorate large gates. Parts of three sets have survived, all from the 9th century BC and the relatively minor city of Imgur-Enlil, modern Balawat. The Balawat Gates were all double gates about 20 foot high, with both the front and back sides decorated with eight bronze repoussé strips, each carrying two registers of narrative reliefs some five inches high. There were presumably equivalents at other Assyrian sites, but at the collapse of the empire the buildings at Balawat caught fire "before they had been efficiently looted" by the enemy, and remained hidden in the ashes and rubble; gypsum slabs were not worth the trouble of looting, unlike bronze. The subjects were similar to the wall reliefs, but on a smaller scale; a typical band is 27 centimetres high, 1.8 metres wide, and only a millimetre thick.

In stone there are reliefs of a similar size on some stelae, most notably two in rectangular obelisk form, both with stepped tops like ziggurats. These are the early 11th-century White Obelisk of Ashurnasirpal I and the 9th century Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, both in the British Museum, which also has the fragmentary "Broken Obelisk" and "Rassam Obelisk". Both have reliefs on all four sides in eight and five registers respectively, and long inscriptions describing the events. The Black and Rassam Obelisks were both set up in what seems to have been the central square in the citadel of Nimrud, presumably a very public space, and the White in Nineveh. All record much the same types of scenes as the narrative sections of wall-relief, and the gates. The Black Obelisk concentrates on scenes of the bringing of tribute from conquered kingdoms, including Israel, while the White also has scenes of war, hunting, and religious figures. The White Obelisk, from 1049–1031, and the "Broken Obelisk" from 1074–1056, predate the earliest known wall-reliefs by 160 years or more, but are respectively in worn and fragmentary condition.

The Black Obelisk is of special interest as the lengthy inscriptions, with names of places and rulers that could be related to other sources, were of importance in the decipherment of cuneiform script. The Obelisk contains the earliest writing mentioning both the Persian and Jewish peoples, and confirmed some of the events described in the Bible, which in the 19th century was regarded as timely support for texts whose historical accuracy was under increasing attack. Other, much smaller pieces with helpful inscriptions were a set of sixteen weight measures in the form of lions.

Statues and portrait stelae

There are very few large free-standing Assyrian statues and, with one possible exception (below), none have been found of the major divinities in their temples. Possibly others existed; any in precious metals would have been looted as the empire fell. Two statues of kings are similar to the portraits in palace reliefs, though seen frontally. They came from temples, where they showed the king's devotion to the deity. The Statue of Ashurnasirpal II is in the British Museum, and that of Shalmaneser III in Istanbul.

There is a unique female statue in the British Museum, missing its extremities, which was found in the temple of Ishtar at Nineveh. It carries an inscription on the back that King Ashur-bel-kala erected it for the "titilation" or enjoyment of the people. It might represent Ishtar, goddess of love among other things, in which case it would be the only known Assyrian statue of a major divinity. All these have standing poses, though seated statues were already known in Mesopotamian art, for example about a dozen statues of Gudea, who ruled Lagash c. 2144 – 2124 BC.

Like other Near-Eastern cultures, the Assyrians erected stelae for various purposes, including marking boundaries. Many just carry inscriptions, but there are some with significant relief sculpture, mostly a large standing portrait of the king of the day, pointing at symbols of the gods, similar in pose to those in palace reliefs, surrounded by a round-topped frame.

Similar figures of kings are shown in rock reliefs, mostly around the edges of the empire. Those shown being made on the Balawat Gates are presumably the ones surviving in poor condition near the Tigris Tunnel. The Assyrians probably took the form from the Hittites; the sites chosen for their 49 recorded reliefs often also make little sense if "signalling" to the general population was the intent, being high and remote, but often near water. The Neo-Assyrians recorded in other places, including metal reliefs on the Balawat Gates showing them being made, the carving of rock reliefs, and it has been suggested that the main intended audience was the gods, the reliefs and the inscriptions that often accompany them being almost of the nature of a "business report" submitted by the ruler. A canal system built by the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib (reigned 704–681 BC) to supply water to Nineveh was marked by a number of reliefs showing the king with gods.

Other reliefs at the Tigris tunnel, a cave in modern Turkey believed to be the source of the river Tigris, are "almost inaccessible and invisible for humans". Probably built by Sennacherib's son Esarhaddon, Shikaft-e Gulgul is a late example in modern Iran, apparently related to a military campaign. The Assyrians added to the Commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb in modern Lebanon, where Ramses II, Pharaoh of Egypt, had rather optimistically commemorated the boundary of his empire many centuries earlier; many later rulers added to the collection. The Assyrian examples were perhaps significant in suggesting the style of the much more ambitious Persian tradition, beginning with the Behistun relief and inscription, made around 500 BC for Darius the Great, on a far grander scale, reflecting and proclaiming the power of the Achaemenid empire.

Excavations

Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire throughout the 19th century, and the government was content to allow foreign excavations and the removal of finds with little hindrance. Even in the 1870s excavators were often only regulated by a regime intended for mining operations, and had to pay a tax based on a proportion of the value of material removed.

The character of the palace reliefs made excavation relatively straightforward, if the right site was chosen. Assyrian palaces were built on high mud-brick platforms. Test trenches were started in various directions, and once one of them had hit sculpture, the trenches had only to follow the lines of the wall, often through a whole suite of rooms. Most trenches could be open to the sky, but at Nimrud, where one palace overlay another, tunnels were necessary in places. Layard estimated "that he had exposed nearly two miles of sculptured walls in Sennacherib's palace alone", not to mention the Library of Ashurbanipal he found there. His excavation practices left a lot to be desired by modern standards; the centres of rooms were not only not excavated, but the material removed from the trench in one room might be deposited in another, compromising later excavations. Typically the slabs were sawn to roughly a third of their original depth, to save weight in carrying them back to Europe, which was typically more complicated and difficult than digging them up.

Botta

The first hint of future discoveries came in 1820 when Claudius Rich, British Resident (a sort of local ambassador or consul) in Baghdad, and an early scholar of the ancient Near East, went to Mosul and the site of ancient Nineveh, where he was told of a large relief panel that had been found and soon broken up. His account was published in 1836; he also brought back two small fragments. In 1842 the French consul in Mosul, Paul-Émile Botta, hired men to dig at Kuyunjik, the largest mound at Nineveh. Little was found until a local farmer suggested they try Khorsabad (ancient Dur-Sharrukin) nearby, where "a short trial was dramatically successful", as a palace of Sargon II was found a few feet below the surface, with plentiful reliefs, although they had been burned and disintegrated easily.

Press reports of Botta's finds, from May 1843, interested the French government, who sent him funds and the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres sent him Eugène Flandin (1809–1889), an artist who had already made careful archaeological drawings of Persian antiquities in a long trip beginning in 1839. Botta decided there was no more to find at the site in October 1844, and concentrated on the difficult task of getting his finds back to Paris, where the first large consignments did not arrive until December 1846. Botta left the two huge lamassu now in the British Museum as too large to transport; Henry Rawlinson, by now British Resident in Baghdhad, sawed them into several pieces for transport in 1849. In 1849 Monument de Ninive was published, a sumptuously illustrated and exemplary monograph in 4 volumes by Botta and Flandin.

Layard and Rassam

Austen Henry Layard (1817–1894) was in the early 1840s "a roving agent attached to the embassy at Constantinople", who had already visited Nimrud in 1840. In 1845 he persuaded Sir Stratford Canning, the ambassador in Constantinople, to personally fund an expedition to excavate there. On his first day digging at Nimrud, with only six workers in November 1845, slabs were found, initially only with inscriptions, but soon with reliefs. He continued to dig until June 1847, with the British government, through the British Museum, taking over the funding from Canning in late 1846, repaying his expenditure. The volume of finds was such that getting them back to Britain was a major task, and many pieces either were reburied, or reached other countries. Layard had recruited the 20-year old Hormuzd Rassam in Mosul, where his brother was British Vice-consul, to handle the pay and supervision of the diggers, and encouraged the development of his career as a diplomat and archaeologist.

Layard returned to England in June 1847, also taking Rassam, who he had arranged to study at Cambridge. He left a few workers, mainly to keep other diggers off the sites, as the French were digging again. His finds were arriving in London, to great public interest, which he greatly increased by publishing a string of books, especially Nineveh and its Remains in 1849. The mistaken title arose because Henry Rawlinson had at that point become convinced that the Nimrud site was actually the ancient Nineveh, though he changed his mind soon after. By October 1849 Layard was back in Mosul, accompanied by the artist Frederick Cooper, and continued to dig until April 1851, after which Rassam took charge of the excavations. By this stage, thanks to Rawlinson and other linguists working on the tablets and inscriptions brought back and other material, the Assyrian cuneiform was at the least becoming partly understood, a task that progressed well over the next decade.

Initially Rassam's finds dwindled, in terms of large objects, and the British even agreed to cede the rights to half the Kuyunjik mound to the French, whose new consul, Victor Place, had resumed digging at Khorsabad. The British funds were running out by December 1853, when Rassam hit upon the palace of Ashurbanipal, which was "in some respects the finest sculptured palace of all", in the new French area of Kuyunjik. Fortunately, Place had not started digging there, and according to Rassam "it was an established rule that whenever one discovered a new palace, no one else could meddle with it, and thus,... I had secured it for England". The new palace took until 1855 to clear, being finished by the Assyrian Exploration Fund, established in 1853 to dig for the benefit of British collections.

Although it was not yet realized, by "the close of excavations in 1855, the hectic Heroic Age of Assyrian archaeology ended", with the great majority of surviving Assyrian sculpture found. Work has continued up to the present day, but no new palaces have been found at the capitals, and finds have mostly been isolated pieces, such as Rassam's discovery in 1878 of two of the Balawat Gates. Many of the pieces reburied have been re-excavated, some very quickly by art dealers, and others by the Iraqi government in the 1960s, leaving them on display in situ for visitors, after the sites were configured as museums. These were already damaged in wars in the 1990s, and have probably been systematically destroyed by Daesh in the 2010s.

Collections

Examples of Assyrian art: The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, a limestone monument showcasing conquered kings paying tribute to the Assyrian empire. Relief carvings from the Northwest Palace at Nimrud, depicting a variety of scenes including battles, hunting, and religious rituals. Lamassu figures from the Khorsabad palace, illustrating the protective nature of these mythical beings. Reliefs depicting Ashurbanipal hunting lions, showcasing the king's strength and bravery. 

As a result of the history of excavations, much the best single collection is in the British Museum, followed by the site museums and other collections in Iraq, which in the 20th century were the largest holdings when taken together, though after the wars of the 21st century their current holdings are uncertain. The fate of the considerable number of pieces that have been found and then reburied is also uncertain. At the peak of excavations, the volume found was too large for the British and French to manage, and many pieces either were diverted at some point on their journey to Europe, or were given away by the museums. Other pieces were excavated by diggers working for dealers. As a result, there are significant groups of large lamassu corner figures and palace relief panels in Paris, Berlin, New York, and Chicago. Many other museums have panels, especially a group of college museums in New England, with the museum at Dartmouth College having seven panels. Altogether there are some 75 pieces in the United States.

Apart from the British Museum, in the United Kingdom, the Ashmolean Museum has 10 reliefs (2 large, 8 small) Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery has 3 large reliefs, and the National Museum of Scotland (2.4 x 2.2 m), and Victoria and Albert Museum one relief each.

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Babylonian art

Babylonian art encompasses the visual creations produced by the inhabitants of ancient Babylonia, a civilization that thrived in Mesopotamia. It is characterized by its elaborate patterns, intricate carvings, and vibrant colors, often incorporating religious symbolism and depicting scenes of daily life and royal power. 

Characteristic

Clay was a primary material, especially in the early periods, used for tablets, sculptures, and even architecture like ziggurats. Later, more durable materials like diorite were used for sculptures and reliefs. Visual art in Babylonia was not intended to simply imitate or replicate reality, the goal was to produce a representation that acted as a stand-in or substitute for the real thing. This representation was then perceived as part of actual reality. 

Babylonian temples are massive structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enamelled tiles. The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terracotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. 

Babylonian art frequently features deities, particularly Marduk, and religious rituals. The king's image and authority were often depicted in art, highlighting his piety and strength. Figures were often depicted in stiff profiles, meant to convey timelessness and a sense of static power. Vibrant colors, such as red and black, were often employed, especially in painted reliefs and murals. 

Babylonian artists also created functional objects like cylinder seals for identification and authentication. Monumental stepped temple pyramids, like the Ziggurat of Etemenanki, were prominent architectural features. Relief Sculpture and Murals were used to decorate buildings and tell stories. 

Due to its abundance, clay was widely used for various art forms, including tablets, sculptures, and building materials. Techniques like firing and glazing were used to strengthen and preserve clay art. 

History

First Babylonian Dynasty (1830–1531 BC)

From the 18th century BC, Hammurabi (1792 BC to 1750 BC), the Amorite ruler of Babylon, turned Babylon into a major power and eventually conquered Mesopotamia and beyond. He is famous for his law code and conquests, but he is also famous due to the large amount of records that exist from the period of his reign. During the period Babylon became a great city, which was often the seat of the dominant power. The period was not one of great artistic development, these invaders failing to bring new artistic impetus, and much religious art was rather self-consciously conservative, perhaps in a deliberate assertion of Sumerian values. The quality of execution is often lower than in preceding and later periods. Some "popular" works of art displayed realism and mouvement, such as the statuette of a walking four-headed god from Ishchali, attributed to the period between 2000 and 1600 BC.

The Burney Relief is an unusual, elaborate, and relatively large (20×15 inches) terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th century BC, and may also be moulded. Similar pieces, small statues or reliefs of deities, were made for altars in homes or small wayside shrines, and small moulded terracotta ones were probably available as souvenirs from temples.

The Investiture of Zimri-Lim, now in the Louvre, is a large palace fresco that is the outstanding survival of Mesopotamian wall-painting, although comparable schemes were probably common in palaces.

After the death of Hammurabi, the first Babylonian dynasty lasted for another century and a half, but his empire quickly unravelled, and Babylon once more became a small state. The Amorite dynasty ended in 1595 BC, when Babylonia fell to the Hittite king Mursilis, after which the Kassites took control.

Neo-Babylonian period (626–539 BC)

The famous Ishtar Gate, part of which is now reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, was the main entrance into Babylon, built in about 575 BC by Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, who exiled the Jews; the empire lasted from 626 BC to 539 BC. The walls surrounding the entrance way are decorated with rows of large relief animals in glazed brick, which has therefore retained its colours. Lions, dragons and bulls are represented. The gate was part of a much larger scheme for a processional way into the city, from which there are sections in many other museums. Large wooden gates throughout the period were strengthened and decorated with large horizontal metal bands, often decorated with reliefs, several of which have survived, such as the various Balawat Gates.

Other traditional types of art continued to be produced, and the Neo-Babylonians were very keen to stress their ancient heritage. Many sophisticated and finely carved seals survive. After Mesopotamia fell to the Persian Achaemenid Empire, which had much simpler artistic traditions, Mesopotamian art was, with Ancient Greek art, the main influence on the cosmopolitan Achaemenid style that emerged, and many ancient elements were retained in the area even in the Hellenistic art that succeeded the conquest of the region by Alexander the Great.

Examples

The Ishtar Gate - A magnificent structure adorned with glazed bricks depicting lions, dragons, and other symbols. 

The Burney Relief (Queen of the Night) - A baked clay relief depicting a winged female figure, likely a goddess, from around 1800 BC. 

Cylinder Seals - Small, intricately carved seals used to make impressions on clay tablets and other objects. 

Stele of Hammurabi - A basalt stele inscribed with the Code of Hammurabi, showcasing a relief of the king receiving laws from the sun god.

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Choker

A choker is a close-fitting necklace worn around the neck, typically 14 to 16 inches long. It's a type of necklace that sits high on the neck, often with little to no dangle, and can be made from a variety of materials like velvet, leather, metal, or beads. 

Chokers have been around for centuries, with examples found in ancient civilizations and periods like the French Revolution and the 1920s. Contemporary chokers come in a wide array of styles, including those made with pearls, chains, velvet ribbons, or even tattoo-like designs. 

Chokers can be paired with various outfits, from casual to formal, and are often seen as a versatile accessory. Chokers can carry various meanings, from fashion statements to symbols of empowerment, rebellion, or even protection, depending on the wearer and the context. 

Composition

A choker is a close-fitting necklace worn around the neck, typically 14 inch to 16 inch in length. Chokers can be made of a variety of materials, including velvet, plastic, beads, latex, leather, metal, such as silver, gold, or platinum, etc. They can be adorned in a variety of ways, including with sequins, studs, or a pendant.

The choker necklace comes in many variations. It can consist of one or more strands of strung chains or beads, or it can be a ribbon, cord, or strap, all of which may or may not be adorned with pearls, precious and semiprecious stones, rhinestones, or other decorative elements. Medallions, cameos, and pendants are commonly worn with these tight necklaces; brooches and tie -pins are best worn in those made of velvet or grosgrain.

The clasp by which this necklace is held around the neck is most often a classic jewelry clasp, more or less ornate. Connecting the two ends of the piece, it is generally closed at the nape of the neck, more rarely at the front. Textile chokers can also be attached with hook-and-loop fasteners; those of sufficient length are simply held by a knot. The leather choker is often fitted with a buckle.

History

Golden choker necklaces were crafted by Sumerian artisans around 2500 BC and according to curators from the Jewelry Museum of Fine Arts, chokers have been around for thousands of years, appearing in Ancient Egypt, in addition to the Sumerians in Mesopotamia. Often made with gold or lapis, the necklaces were thought to be protective and imbued with special powers.

Chokers were also later worn in the 1st century A.D. They are mentioned in the Talmud, book Shabbat, chapter 6 as a common women's accessory.

19th Century

Neck jewelry that is very similar to a choker was widespread in the Renaissance and the 19th century.

Ballerinas and the upper class in the late 19th century commonly wore certain types of chokers. However, at that same time, in the late 19th century, a plain, thin, red or black ribbon choker had ties to prostitution, as seen in Manet's Olympia (1861).

The 19th-century fashion for broad chokers reached its peak around 1900 in part due to Queen Alexandra of the United Kingdom wearing one to hide a small scar. Chokers were popular into the 1920s and again in the '40s as colliers de chien. In particular, the term dog collars or colliers de chien caught on, and these designs – incorporating luxe diamonds, pearls, lace, and velvet – could be seen as objects of the elite because the best kinds were custom-made to fit one's neck perfectly. In 1944 Life magazine stated that "a dowager fashion of 40 years ago" was being revived by young women, illustrating the trend with photos of models wearing the now vaguely rebellious "dog collars".

In Bavaria, chokers are often worn with traditional costumes, although in this case they are called a choker and are often a velvet ribbon with pearls or brooches.

Modern fashion

In today's fashion, the choker can also be found as a stretchy collar made of mesh or braided stretchy materials in various colors. Made of leather and with an O-ring attached to the front, chokers were initially frequently seen in BDSM and Gothic culture, until corresponding models also became established in mainstream fashion. 

In the modern era, chokers have been popular with some celebrities, including Gwyneth Paltrow, who wore one to the 1999 Academy Awards. Paris Hilton wore three inches of Swarovski around her neck in 2002. Rihanna has also been featured wearing chokers.

In the 2010s, the choker became a popular fashion among transgender women, due not only to its association with femininity but also because of its potential to hide the Adam's apple without performing a tracheal shave.

Material

In earlier times, the piece of jewelry often consisted of a single row of pearls or beads of the same size, often with a large gemstone. Today, chokers are available in a variety of colors, shapes, and materials.

Manufacturing

Chokers can be bought, but it is also very simple to make them because you can easily buy ribbon in a haberdashery: the choices of materials (satin, velvet, lace mainly), colors and widths are varied.

Decorations can be sewn on, such as flat beads, which have holes that make sewing easier. Other ornaments can also be hung on them, such as a Christian cross, among other examples.

Of course, all that remains is to sew the ribbon ties: before that, you have to put the ribbon around your neck to measure it correctly, so that in the end it doesn't float or tighten too much.

The fasteners can be a simple Velcro fastener, which can also be found in haberdashery stores, or small individual fasteners, similar to corset or bra fasteners. However, it seems that this type of fastener sold individually no longer exists.

Matching clothes

This necklace is enhanced by V- necks, boat necks or even with off-the-shoulder dresses. It can possibly be accompanied by a normal collar.

In literature

The fantastic plot of an undead woman guillotined in Paris during the Terror, whose head and life are held in place by a dark choker, has been dramatized by several short story writers. Weeping at the foot of the scaffold, the beautiful stranger is discovered by a young German who "brings her home, spends the night with her, and discovers her the next day dead in her bed before learning that had been decapitated the day before; the collar unfastened, the head rolls away ."

Washington Irving (1783-1859) imagined this story in "The Adventure of the German Student" published in the collection Tales of a Traveller (1824).

Petrus Borel (1809-1859) adapted it in Gottfried Wolfgang (1839, published in 1843).

Alexandre Dumas père (1802-1870) drew inspiration from it for the short story The Woman with the Velvet Necklace (1849). He brought the German author of fantastic tales E. TA Hoffmann to Paris during the revolutionary era. One evening, at the Théâtre de l'Opéra, he fell madly in love with the beautiful ballerina Arsène. Embodying a nymph, she was curiously adorned with a "strange" velvet necklace held by a "dismal diamond clasp" in the shape of a guillotine.

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Gold lunula

A Gold lunula is a crescent-shaped ornament, typically made of thin gold, that was popular during the Early Bronze Age, primarily in Ireland and other parts of Europe. These ornaments are thought to have been worn as necklaces or collars, and their distinctive crescent shape is the origin of their name, derived from the Latin word "lunula" meaning "little moon". 

Gold lunulae are characterized by their crescent or half-moon shape, crafted from thin, hammered gold. They often have expanded terminals that are twisted at an angle to the main body. Gold lunulae can be categorized into different styles, including Classical, Unaccomplished, and Provincial, based on their design and craftsmanship. 

The lunula is considered an iconic object of the Early Bronze Age, and their presence in archaeological contexts suggests their importance in the material culture of that period. These ornaments are primarily associated with the Early Bronze Age and are found in various regions of Europe, with the highest concentration in Ireland. While their exact purpose is not definitively known, they are generally believed to have been worn as decorative neck ornaments, potentially for ceremonial or ritualistic purposes. 

Overview

A gold lunula (pl. gold lunulae) was a distinctive type of late Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and—most often—early Bronze Age necklace, collar, or pectoral shaped like a crescent moon. Most are from Prehistoric Ireland. They are normally flat and thin, with roundish spatulate terminals that are often twisted to 45 to 90 degrees from the plane of the body. Gold lunulae fall into three distinct groups, termed Classical, Unaccomplished and Provincial by archaeologists. Most have been found in Ireland, but there are moderate numbers in other parts of Europe as well, from Great Britain to areas of the continent fairly near the Atlantic coasts. Although no lunula has been directly dated, from associations with other artefacts it is thought they were being made sometime in the period between 2400 and 2000 BC; a wooden box associated with one Irish find has recently given a radiocarbon dating range of 2460–2040 BC.

Of the more than a hundred gold lunulae known from Western Europe, more than eighty are from Ireland; it is possible they were all the work of a handful of expert goldsmiths, though the three groups are presumed to have had different creators. Several examples have a heavily crinkled appearance suggesting that they had been rolled up at some point. One Irish example, from Ballinagroun, has had its original Classical engraved decoration beaten over to erase it (not quite successfully), and then a new Unaccomplished scheme added. This and the fact that it had been folded over several times suggest that it had been in use for a long time before it was deposited. The first two examples illustrated show roughly the range of widths of the lowest part of the lunula that is found. Finds in graves are rare, perhaps suggesting they were regarded as clan or group property rather than personal possessions, and though some were found in bogs, perhaps suggesting ritual deposits, more were found on higher ground, often under standing stones.

Most gold lunulae have decorative patterns very much resembling beaker pottery from roughly the same period, using geometrical patterns made up of straight lines, with zig-zags and criss-cross patterns, and many different axes of symmetry. The curving edges of the lunula are generally followed by curving border-lines, often with decoration between them. The decoration is typically most dense at the tips and edges, and the broad lower central area is often undecorated between the borders. The decoration also resembles that on amber and jet spacer necklaces, which are thought to be slightly later in date.

Typology

Gold lunulae have been classified into groups as follows:

Classical, perhaps all made in Ireland, on average the widest, heaviest and also thinnest group. They are thin enough to be flexible when worn, and for the incised decoration to appear as relief on their underside. One aspect of the skill with which they are made is the variation in thickness across the piece, with the inner edge often three times thicker than the middle and the outer edge twice as thick.

Unaccomplished, similar in their range of design motifs, but narrower and less skillfully executed; a small number are undecorated. All Irish.

Provincial, so named as all except one example were found outside Ireland. Thicker and more rigid, they were probably all or mostly made outside Ireland. Their decoration can be more varied, and is divided into two groups: "dot-line", found in Scotland and Wales, and "linear", found in Cornwall, Belgium and north Germany, as well as the Irish example. The northern coast of France has both types. Punches, not otherwise used in lunulae, are used for the dots in "dot-line" types.

It used to be thought that these groups were produced in chronological sequence, but this is now much less certain, although the Ballinagroun lunula does show Unaccomplished decoration replacing Classical when it was reworked. In one large sample of 39 lunulae, the 19 Classical averaged 54 grams, with the 12 Unaccomplished averaging 40 g. Finds of Classical lunulae are concentrated in the north of Ireland, probably near the sources of gold, with Unaccomplished find spots mostly forming a "peripheral border" around this area. A few Classical lunulae have been found on the north Cornish coast and in southern Scotland.

Three Provincial lunulae were discovered in Kerivoa, Brittany (Kerivoa-en-Bourbriac, Côtes-d'Armor) in the remains of a box with some sheet gold and a rod of gold. The rod had its terminals hammered flat in the manner of the lunulae. From this it is thought that Lunulae were made by hammering a rod of gold flat so it became sheet-like and fitted the desired shape. Decoration was then applied by impressing designs with a stylus. The stylus used often leaves tell-tale impressions on the surface of the gold and it is thought that all the lunulae from Kerivoa, and another two from Saint-Potan, Brittany and Harlyn Bay, Cornwall were all made with the same tool. This suggests that all five lunulae were the work of one craftsperson and the contents of the Kerivoa box their tools of trade.

Lunulae were probably replaced as neck ornaments firstly by gold torcs, found from the Irish Middle Bronze Age, and then in the Late Bronze Age by the spectacular gorgets of thin ribbed gold, some with round discs at the side, of which 9 examples survive, 7 in the National Museum of Ireland.

The shape is sometimes found into the Iron Age, now also in silver, though the relation to the much earlier Bronze Age lunulae may be tenuous. A bronze example from the Welsh Llyn Cerrig Bach lake deposit (200 BC – 100 AD) has an embossed medallion with a triskele-based design in Celtic La Tène style, although it lacks the fastening at the back and has holes that are presumably for fixing it to a surface. It has been suggested it fitted around the pole of a chariot, or was attached to a shield, or worn by a statue. Two silver examples from Chão de Lamas, Coimbra in Portugal of about 200 BC should perhaps be considered as flattened and widened torcs; similar pieces are worn by figures in sculpture from the same culture.

Recent finds

The known corpus continues to expand slowly. The UK Portable Antiquities Scheme has recorded three incomplete finds in England in recent years, in 2008, 2012 and 2014, the last only missing one terminal. In 2009 the Coggalbeg hoard surfaced in Ireland; it had actually been discovered in 1945 when cutting peat, but kept hidden. The hoard, including a lunula of the Classical type, is now in the National Museum of Ireland.

The place of manufacture of the golden examples is Ireland (Blessington), but they have also been found in Germany (Butzbach and Schulenburg), France (Bourbriac), Poland, Scandinavia and Great Britain (Harlyn Cornwall, Llanllyfni Wales).  The gold lunula, which was found in the Pattensen district of Schulenburg, is the only gold lunula from Lower Saxony, while three copper lunulae have been found from another site, the copper hoard from Osnabrück in 2016. The Irish lunulae are usually interpreted as neck jewelry (Ross in County Westmeath). However, since they have never been found in a grave context, their use or how they were worn in Central and Northern Europe is unknown.

Portuguese lunulae are usually made of slate. They were probably worn with the points downwards, as suggested by the position of the usually two eyelets. Examples of this type have been recovered in the caves of Cascais and at the site of Trigache 2. The lunula from Cabeço da Arruda 2, which has five holes, does not provide any precise indication of how it was worn, nor does the multi-hole fragment from Pedra dos Mouros. The arrangement of the holes, however, suggests various possibilities. There are also unholemed finds from Praia das Maçãs and Trigache 3, as well as the golden lunula from Cabeceiras de Basto and lunulae that are clearly engraved on statue menhirs such as those at Portela de Mogos.

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Lanyard

A lanyard is a cord or strap, often worn around the neck, wrist, or attached to a belt, used to hold and display items like ID badges, keys, or small tools. Originally used by sailors and soldiers to secure items and prevent loss, lanyards are now widely used for identification, security, and convenience in various settings. 

The term "lanyard" in French meaning strap, and its use dates back to the 15th century in military and naval contexts. A lanyard is a length of cord, webbing, or strap that may serve any of various functions, which include a means of attachment, restraint, retrieval, activation, and deactivation. A lanyard is also a piece of rigging used to secure or lower objects aboard a ship. 

Lanyards primarily serve as a way to keep items easily accessible and visible, preventing loss or misplacement. They are typically made from durable materials like nylon, polyester, or woven fabric. Lanyards can be customized with logos, colors, and different attachments. They can also feature safety breakaways to prevent injury in case of snagging. 

Lanyard is convenience to carrying keys, whistles, small tools, or other items. Also used as part of a uniform to denote rank or qualification. Helping to identify authorized personnel and visitors. Displaying ID badges or access control cards, especially in workplaces, schools, and events. 

Origins

The earliest references to lanyards date from 15th century France: "lanière" was a thong or strap-on apparatus.

Bosun's pipe, marlinspike, and small knives typically had a lanyard consisting of a string loop tied together with a diamond knot. It helped secure the item and gave an extended grip over a small handle.

In the French military, lanyards were used to connect a pistol, sword, or whistle (for signaling) to a uniform semi-permanently. Lanyards were used by mounted cavalry on land and naval officers at sea. A pistol lanyard can be easily removed and reattached by the user, but will stay connected to the pistol whether it is drawn for use or it is placed into a holster for carrying.

In the military, lanyards of various colour combinations and braid patterns are worn on the shoulders of uniforms to denote the wearer's qualification or regimental affiliation. In horse regiments, lanyards were worn on the left, enabling a rider to pull a whistle from the left tunic pocket and maintain communication with his troop. Members of the British Royal Artillery wear a lanyard which originally held a key for adjusting the fuzes of explosive shells.

Functions

An attachment lanyard is a light duty tether worn around the neck, shoulder, wrist or attached to the belt as a sling to conveniently carry items such as keys or identification cards, or as a safety harness to prevent accidental dropping of valuable handheld items such as a camera.

A restraint lanyard is a safety lanyard used by construction workers, such as a lineman.

A retrieval lanyard is a nylon webbing lanyard used to raise and lower workers into confined spaces, such as storage tanks.

An activation lanyard is a lanyard used to fire an artillery piece or arm the fuze on a bomb leaving an aircraft.

A deactivation lanyard is a dead man's switch, where pulling a lanyard free will disable a dangerous device.

Styles and materials

The style, design or material used will vary depending on end-purpose of the lanyard. Lanyard materials include polyester, nylon, satin, silk, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), braided leather or braided paracord.

Common styles

Polyester imprinted lanyards

Nylon imprinted lanyards

Tube imprinted lanyards

Dye-sublimated lanyards or full-color lanyards

Accessory for electronics

Lanyards are widely used with small electronic devices such as cameras, MP3 players and USB flash drives to prevent loss or dropping. Electronics designed to take a lanyard usually have a small through-hole built into a corner or edge of the case or anchored to the frame of the device; the corresponding lanyard generally has a loop of thread on the end that is attached to that hole with a simple knot, usually a cow hitch. Some earphones incorporate the audio signal into the lanyard, meaning it doubles up as headphone cords as well. The Wii Remote wrist strap is a form of lanyard, keeping the device attached to a player's arm during the often vigorous movements involved in its use.

Badge or identification holder

Lanyards are commonly used to display badges, tickets or ID cards for identification where security is required, such as businesses, corporations, hospitals, prisons, conventions, trade fairs, and backstage passes used in the entertainment industry. Such lanyards are often made of braided or woven fabric or split with a clip attached to the end. A plastic pouch or badge holder with at least one clear side is attached to the lanyard with the person's name badge or ID card. Occasionally, small items like business cards, pens or tools can be placed behind the badge for easy access. Lanyards can also be used as keychains, particularly in situations where keys can easily be lost, such as gyms, public pools and communal showers.

In these cases, lanyards may be customised with the related name and/or logo of the event, business, or organisation. Lanyards can feature a variety of customisation techniques including screen-printing, Jacquard loom weaving, heat transfer, and offset printing.

Safety strap

Lanyards are also often attached to dead man's switches or "kill switches" on dangerous machinery, such as large industrial cutting or slicing machines, vehicles, jet-skis or trains, and exercise treadmills, so that if the operator suddenly becomes incapacitated, their fall will pull on the lanyard attached to their wrist, which will then pull the switch to immediately stop the machine or vehicle.

Some law enforcement officers and members of the military utilise specialised lanyards to keep sidearms from falling to the ground during missions.

Many ID card lanyards have a built-in feature known as a "breakaway" closure. Breakaway lanyards release when pulled or when pressure is applied. This prevents choking or hanging. Lanyards with a breakaway feature are most often used in hospitals and healthcare clinics, schools, nursing homes, child care facilities, and factories that require employees to operate machinery.

Lineman lanyards

Lineman lanyards are used by lineworker utility and other workers to prevent falls, although similar straps are also used recreationally by mountain climbers. This type of lanyard will have a section of heavy-duty nylon strapping attached to a metal ring or carabiner which tightens around an attachment point. The strap may be a fixed length or adjustable, and will attach to the wearer to support them against a fixed object or pole.

Uniform accessories

Certain lanyards are still worn on uniforms as decorations similar to an aiguillette or fourragère. Among these are the Orange Lanyard in the Military William Order of the Netherlands and the German Armed Forces Badge of Marksmanship.

A white lanyard has formed part of the uniform of Britain's Royal Artillery (RA) since the end of the 19th century. Originally a simple cord carrying a fuse key, the braided and whitened lanyard became the recognised distinction of a Gunner. The distinction was extended to women of the Auxiliary Territorial Service attached to RA units during World War II. Certain battalions descended from the Durham Light Infantry wore green lanyards to denote their past links with the regiment, whose uniform had a dark green facing colour from 1903 onwards.

Royal Naval Rating wear a white lanyard when dressed in No. 1 uniform, the origin of the lanyard was to carry a pouch of gunpowder for the cannon.

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Lei garland

A lei (pronounced "lay") garland is a wreath or garland, traditionally made of flowers, leaves, shells, or other materials, often worn around the neck or head, particularly in Polynesian and Hawaiian cultures. Leis are often given as gifts to express affection, welcome, or farewell, and are commonly associated with symbols of love, respect, and honor. 

A lei common in The Pacific Islands of Polynesia and also in Asia (Philippines). While commonly made of flowers, leis can also be crafted from leaves, shells, seeds, nuts, feathers, and even ribbon. More loosely defined, a lei is any series of objects strung together with the intent to be worn. Leis come in various styles and materials, with some being more traditional and others incorporating contemporary materials like satin or ribbon. 

Lei of various styles are given as gifts to honour people throughout the Pacific, being presented, for example, to visiting dignitaries, graduates, or to loved ones who are departing. Leis are symbols of affection, love, respect, and honor. In Hawaii, they are often presented with a kiss as a sign of hospitality and welcome.

Leis are deeply rooted in Polynesian and Hawaiian traditions. They are not just decorative items but carry significant cultural meaning, often used to express emotions and celebrate special occasions. Lei gained popularity in the United States due to the common practice of presenting one to arriving or leaving tourists in Hawaiʻi. Sampaguita leis are also used in the Philippines for religious reasons, typically worn to their Anito or religious statues.

Symbolism

A lei can be given to someone for a variety of reasons. Most commonly, these reasons include peace, love, honor, or friendship. Common events during which leis may be distributed include graduations, weddings, and school dances. Often the composition of a lei determines its significance. A lei made using a hala fruit, for instance, is said to be connected to love, desire, transition, and change.

Materials

A lei may be composed of a pattern or series of just about anything, but most commonly consists of fresh natural foliage such as flowers, leaves, vines, fern fronds, and seeds. The most commonly used flowers are those of plumerias, tuberose, carnations, orchids, and pikake, though maile leaves, ferns, and tī leaves are extremely popular as well as traditional among hula dancers. Other types of lei may include sea or land shells, fish teeth, bones, feathers, plastic flowers, fabric, paper (including origami and monetary bills), candy, or anything that can be strung together in a series or pattern and worn as a wreath or a necklace. The Hawaiian island of Niʻihau is famous for its lei made of tiny gem-like shells (pūpū).

Crafting

The eight most common methods of making lei are:

Haku: three-ply braid incorporating additional materials. A method of making a lei by using a base material, such as softened tree bark or long leaves, and braiding it while adding the decorative plant material into each wrap of the braid. Normally used for flowers and foliage with long pliable petioles or stems.

Hili: braid or plait with only one kind of material. Most commonly made from three or more strands of supple vine or fern braided together.

Hilo: twist, double helix, intertwine. A method of making a lei by twisting two strands together to form a "rope". The popular and simple lei lāʻī (tī leaf lei) is made using this method.

Hipuʻu / nipuʻu: a method of making a lei by knotting the stems of the decorative plant material and stringing the next stem through the knot. It requires a very long stem on the decorative material. Similar to a daisy chain.

Humu / humuhumu: sew to a backing, usually using a basting stitch. A method of making a lei by sewing the decorative material to a backing such as hala, laʻi, paper, or felt. Each successive row of lei material is overlapped on the previous to create a scale-like effect. Bougainvillea lei and feather hat lei often are made with this method.

Kui: pierce, piercing stitch. A method of making a lei by sewing or piercing the decorative material with a needle and stringing it onto a thread. This is probably the style with which most Westerners are familiar. This method is commonly used to string flowers such as plumeria, rose, carnation, etc.

Wili: wind, twist, crank, coil. A corkscrew-type twist, as found in a pig's tail and the seed pod of the wiliwili tree. A method of making a lei by winding fiber around successive short lengths of the decorative material. Sometimes base materials such as hala, laʻi, strands of raffia, or even strips of paper are used to make wrapping easier.

Haku mele: to braid a song. A song composed out of affection for an individual is considered a lei.

Lei may be open or closed, depending on circumstance.

These leis are traditionally constructed using natural foliage.

Historical context

Leis were originally worn by ancient Polynesians and some Asian people as part of custom. They were often used by Native Hawaiians to signify their ranks and royalty. They are also worn as a form of honor to each other and their gods. The religion of the Native Hawaiians as well as the hula custom is tied into the leis that they wore.

Native Hawaiians, who are Polynesian, brought the tradition of lei making and wearing with them to the Hawaiian islands when they arrived. On the first of every May, an event called Lei Day is celebrated to honor the act of lei making and the custom surrounding it.

Customs

There are many customs and protocols associated with the giving, receiving, wearing, storing, and disposing of lei. A story that originated during World War II tells of a hula dancer who dared to give a lei to a US soldier along with a kiss, leading it to become a tradition of lei distribution in modern times. To this day, leis remain a notable aspect of Hawaiian culture. Traditionalists give a lei by bowing slightly and raising it above the heart, allowing the recipient to take it, as raising the hands above another's head, or touching the face or head, is considered disrespectful.

By tradition, only open lei are given to a pregnant or nursing woman. If due to allergies or other reasons a person cannot wear a lei which has just been given (for instance a musician who would tangle the lei in their guitar strap), the lei is displayed in a place of honor, such as the musician's music stand or microphone stand. Lei should never be thrown away casually, or tossed into the trash.

Traditionally they should be returned to the place they were gathered, or if that is not possible, they should be returned to the earth by hanging in a tree, burying, or burning. A lei represents love, and to throw one away represents throwing away the love of the giver. Many types of lei can be left in a window to dry, allowing the natural fragrance to fill the room. This technique is often used in cars as well.

Polynesia

In Polynesian cultures, a lei is something that is created by someone and given to another with the intent to decorate that person for an emotional reason—usually as a sign of affection. Common reasons include greeting, farewell, affection or love, friendship, appreciation, congratulation, recognition, or to otherwise draw attention to the recipient. In Samoa, similar garlands fashioned of entire flowers, buds, seeds, nuts, plant fibers, leaves, ferns, seashells, or flower petals are called "asoa" or "ula", while single flowers or clusters worn in the hair or on the ear are called sei. In Tahiti such garlands are referred to as "hei" and in the Cook Islands they are called an "ei".

Tongans are known for creating unique "kahoa" leis made of chains of flat, crescent or triangular arrangements made of flower petals and leaves sewn onto a leaf or cloth backing. In Niue the iconic lei is the kahoa hihi which made from strings of tiny, distinctively yellow snail (hihi) shells. Many modern Polynesian celebrations include the giving and receiving of leis in various forms, including recent adaptations of the flower/plant lei in which candy, folded currency bills, rolls of coinage, and even spam musubi are tied into garlands. "Non-traditional" materials such as cloth ribbon, sequins, cellophane wrap, curling ribbon, and yarn are often used to fashion leis in various forms today.

Hawaiʻi

Among residents of Hawaiʻi, the most popular occasions at which nā lei can be found are birthdays, graduations, weddings, funerals, retirement parties, and bridal showers. It is not uncommon for a high school or college graduate to be seen wearing so many nā lei that they reach their ears or higher.

On May 1 each year, Hawaiians celebrate "Lei Day", first conceived in 1927 by poet Don Blanding. At the time, Blanding was employed by the Honolulu Star Bulletin, and he shared his idea with columnist Grace Tower Warren, who came up with the phrase, "May Day is Lei Day". The Hawaiian song, "May Day is Lei Day in Hawaii" was composed in 1927 by Ruth and Leonard "Red" Hawk.

At the 81st Annual Mayor's Lei Day Celebration at Kapiʻolani Park in 2008, Honolulu set the record for the World's Longest Lei. Unofficially, the lei measured 5,336 feet (1,626 m) in length, more than a mile.

Notable Hawaiian artisans of feather lei (lei hulu) making include Mary Louise Kekuewa, and Johanna Drew Cluney.

All of the major islands celebrate Lei Day, and each island is symbolized in pageantry by a specific type of lei and a color.

Hawaiʻi: red, ʻōhiʻa lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha)

Maui: pink, lokelani (Rosa damascena)

Kahoʻolawe: gray or silver, hinahina (Heliotropium anomalum var. argentum)

Lānaʻi: orange, kaunaʻoa (Cuscuta sandwichiana)

Oʻahu: yellow or gold, ʻilima (Sida fallax)

Molokaʻi: green, kukui (Aleurites moluccanus)

Kauaʻi: purple, mokihana (Melicope anisata)

Niʻihau: white, pūpū o Niʻihau (Niʻihau shells)

Philippines

The old custom for welcoming guests in the Philippines is by giving a flower necklace made of sampaguita, the country's national flower. However, in the recent years, more affordable options has emerged. This became popular over time as fresh flowers are hard to maintain especially during long events. One of the popular modern option are rosette leis, it is made of Brocade cut into necklace of various designs and a center piece flower petals made of satin ribbon.

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Mangalasutra

A mangala sutra (Sanskrit: मङ्गलसूत्रम्, romanized: maṅgalasūtram), or tali (ISO: tāḷi), is a necklace worn by married Hindu women. During a Hindu wedding, the mangalasutra is tied around the neck of the bride by the groom. The ceremony is known as the Mangalya Dharanam (Sanskrit for 'wearing the auspicious').

A mangalsutra is a sacred necklace worn by married Hindu women in India, symbolizing their marital status and commitment to their husbands. It's considered a symbol of love, commitment, and divine blessings. The word "mangalsutra" is derived from Sanskrit, where "mangal" means auspicious and "sutra" means thread. Mangalsutras are sometimes passed down through generations as cherished family heirlooms, connecting mothers, daughters, and granddaughters. 

The mangalsutra is tied around the bride's neck by the groom during the Hindu wedding ceremony, signifying their union. It represents the eternal bond between husband and wife, and is typically worn throughout the woman's lifetime. The mangalsutra is believed to protect the husband and family, and it's also seen as a source of divine blessings. 

Mangalsutras vary in design and materials across different regions and communities in India. Traditionally, they consist of black beads strung on a yellow or black thread, often with a gold pendant. Black beads are believed to absorb and deflect negative energy, providing protection to the wearer and her family. 

Mangalasutra literally means "an auspicious thread" that is knotted around the bride's neck and is worn by her for the remainder of her marriage. It is usually a necklace with black beads strung from a black or yellow thread prepared with turmeric. Sometimes gold, white or red beads are also added to the mangala sutra, depending on regional variation. The necklace serves as a visual marker of marital status.

The tying of the mangala sutra is a common practice in India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. The idea of sacred thread existed for centuries, even going back to the Sangam period. But the nature of these auspicious threads has evolved over time and varies widely according to various communities. While traditional designs are still prevalent, modern variations of mangalsutras incorporate diamonds and other precious stones. 

History

The mangala sutra's origin dates back to the 4th century BCE, referred to as the mangalya sutra in the Lalita Sahasranama, and the Purananuru, a Sangam text, mentions a sacred marriage tali upon a woman's neck. It also finds a mention in the 6th century CE as a single yellow thread that was tied around the bride for protection from other men and evil spirits.

The concept of mangala sutra has evolved over centuries, and has become an integral part of marriages among several Indian communities. Historian of Indian jewellery, Usha Balakrishnan, explains that the mangala sutra had previously referred to a literal thread as opposed to an item of jewellery.

The significance of the mangala sutra is described by Adi Shankara in the Soundarya Lahari. According to Hindu tradition, the mangala sutra is worn for the long life of the husband. As told by religious customs and social expectations, married women should wear mangala sutra throughout their life as it is believed that the practice enhances the well-being of her husband. Bridal jewellery in ancient times also worked as a financial security against old age and widowhood, even though women did have property rights.

Designs

Mangala sutras are made in a variety of designs. The common ones are the Lakshmi tali worn by the Telugus of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, which contain images of Lakshmi, the goddess of auspiciousness, ela tali or minnu worn by the Malayalees of Kerala, and the Kumbha tali worn by the Tamils of the Kshatriya caste in Tamil Nadu. The design is chosen by the groom's family according to prevalent customs. Gujaratis and Marwaris from Rajasthan often use a diamond pendant in a gold chain which is merely ornamental in nature and is not a substitute to the mangala sutra in the traditional sense. Marathis of Maharashtra wear a pendant of two vati ornaments shaped like tiny bowls. The mangala sutra of the Kannadigas of Karnataka is similar to that of the Marathis, except that it usually has one vati. Nowadays many fashion-conscious families opt for lighter versions, with a single vati or a more contemporary style.

Konkani people (Goans, Mangaloreans, Bombay East Indians and others, including Hindus) wear three necklaces around their necks, referred to as dharemani or muhurtmani (big golden bead), mangalasutra with one or two gold discs and kasitali with gold and coral beads. In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, the two coin-sized gold discs are separated by 2-3 beads of different kinds. By tradition, one disc comes from the bride's family and another from the groom's side.

Non-Hindu religious groups such as Syrian Christians also wear mangala sutra, but with a cross on it.

Meaning

The significance of the mangalsutra was reiterated by Adi Shankara in his famous book Soundarya Lahari. According to Hindu tradition, the mangasutra is worn throughout the long life of the husband. In accordance with religious customs and social expectations, married women are expected to wear the mangalsutra throughout their lives, as this practice is believed to enhance the well-being of their husbands. In ancient times, bridal jewelry also served as a financial guarantee against old age and widowhood, even though women had property rights.

According to tradition, the mangalsutra symbolizes the inseparable bond between a husband and wife. During the wedding ceremony, the groom, while performing the ritual act of tying the ties of the mangalsutra around the bride's neck, pronounces, "Long may you live wearing this sacred mangalsutra, you who are the reason for my existence."

Married women are required to wear the Mangalsutra throughout their lives, as it is believed to improve the well-being of their husbands and family, but it cannot be displayed in public. The Mangalsutra is also believed to protect the marriage from all harm. A Hindu marriage is therefore incomplete without the Mangalsutra.

Furthermore, the three knots symbolize three different aspects of a married woman: the first knot represents obedience to her husband, the second to her parents, and the third represents her respect for her God.

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