Babylonian art

Babylonian art encompasses the visual creations produced by the inhabitants of ancient Babylonia, a civilization that thrived in Mesopotamia. It is characterized by its elaborate patterns, intricate carvings, and vibrant colors, often incorporating religious symbolism and depicting scenes of daily life and royal power. 

Characteristic

Clay was a primary material, especially in the early periods, used for tablets, sculptures, and even architecture like ziggurats. Later, more durable materials like diorite were used for sculptures and reliefs. Visual art in Babylonia was not intended to simply imitate or replicate reality, the goal was to produce a representation that acted as a stand-in or substitute for the real thing. This representation was then perceived as part of actual reality. 

Babylonian temples are massive structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enamelled tiles. The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terracotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. 

Babylonian art frequently features deities, particularly Marduk, and religious rituals. The king's image and authority were often depicted in art, highlighting his piety and strength. Figures were often depicted in stiff profiles, meant to convey timelessness and a sense of static power. Vibrant colors, such as red and black, were often employed, especially in painted reliefs and murals. 

Babylonian artists also created functional objects like cylinder seals for identification and authentication. Monumental stepped temple pyramids, like the Ziggurat of Etemenanki, were prominent architectural features. Relief Sculpture and Murals were used to decorate buildings and tell stories. 

Due to its abundance, clay was widely used for various art forms, including tablets, sculptures, and building materials. Techniques like firing and glazing were used to strengthen and preserve clay art. 

History

First Babylonian Dynasty (1830–1531 BC)

From the 18th century BC, Hammurabi (1792 BC to 1750 BC), the Amorite ruler of Babylon, turned Babylon into a major power and eventually conquered Mesopotamia and beyond. He is famous for his law code and conquests, but he is also famous due to the large amount of records that exist from the period of his reign. During the period Babylon became a great city, which was often the seat of the dominant power. The period was not one of great artistic development, these invaders failing to bring new artistic impetus, and much religious art was rather self-consciously conservative, perhaps in a deliberate assertion of Sumerian values. The quality of execution is often lower than in preceding and later periods. Some "popular" works of art displayed realism and mouvement, such as the statuette of a walking four-headed god from Ishchali, attributed to the period between 2000 and 1600 BC.

The Burney Relief is an unusual, elaborate, and relatively large (20×15 inches) terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th century BC, and may also be moulded. Similar pieces, small statues or reliefs of deities, were made for altars in homes or small wayside shrines, and small moulded terracotta ones were probably available as souvenirs from temples.

The Investiture of Zimri-Lim, now in the Louvre, is a large palace fresco that is the outstanding survival of Mesopotamian wall-painting, although comparable schemes were probably common in palaces.

After the death of Hammurabi, the first Babylonian dynasty lasted for another century and a half, but his empire quickly unravelled, and Babylon once more became a small state. The Amorite dynasty ended in 1595 BC, when Babylonia fell to the Hittite king Mursilis, after which the Kassites took control.

Neo-Babylonian period (626–539 BC)

The famous Ishtar Gate, part of which is now reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, was the main entrance into Babylon, built in about 575 BC by Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, who exiled the Jews; the empire lasted from 626 BC to 539 BC. The walls surrounding the entrance way are decorated with rows of large relief animals in glazed brick, which has therefore retained its colours. Lions, dragons and bulls are represented. The gate was part of a much larger scheme for a processional way into the city, from which there are sections in many other museums. Large wooden gates throughout the period were strengthened and decorated with large horizontal metal bands, often decorated with reliefs, several of which have survived, such as the various Balawat Gates.

Other traditional types of art continued to be produced, and the Neo-Babylonians were very keen to stress their ancient heritage. Many sophisticated and finely carved seals survive. After Mesopotamia fell to the Persian Achaemenid Empire, which had much simpler artistic traditions, Mesopotamian art was, with Ancient Greek art, the main influence on the cosmopolitan Achaemenid style that emerged, and many ancient elements were retained in the area even in the Hellenistic art that succeeded the conquest of the region by Alexander the Great.

Examples

The Ishtar Gate - A magnificent structure adorned with glazed bricks depicting lions, dragons, and other symbols. 

The Burney Relief (Queen of the Night) - A baked clay relief depicting a winged female figure, likely a goddess, from around 1800 BC. 

Cylinder Seals - Small, intricately carved seals used to make impressions on clay tablets and other objects. 

Stele of Hammurabi - A basalt stele inscribed with the Code of Hammurabi, showcasing a relief of the king receiving laws from the sun god.

Sourced from Wikipedia

Note: Part of this article includes content generated by AI, which may contain mistakes that not in line with reality, please carefully identify.

Choker

A choker is a close-fitting necklace worn around the neck, typically 14 to 16 inches long. It's a type of necklace that sits high on the neck, often with little to no dangle, and can be made from a variety of materials like velvet, leather, metal, or beads. 

Chokers have been around for centuries, with examples found in ancient civilizations and periods like the French Revolution and the 1920s. Contemporary chokers come in a wide array of styles, including those made with pearls, chains, velvet ribbons, or even tattoo-like designs. 

Chokers can be paired with various outfits, from casual to formal, and are often seen as a versatile accessory. Chokers can carry various meanings, from fashion statements to symbols of empowerment, rebellion, or even protection, depending on the wearer and the context. 

Composition

A choker is a close-fitting necklace worn around the neck, typically 14 inch to 16 inch in length. Chokers can be made of a variety of materials, including velvet, plastic, beads, latex, leather, metal, such as silver, gold, or platinum, etc. They can be adorned in a variety of ways, including with sequins, studs, or a pendant.

The choker necklace comes in many variations. It can consist of one or more strands of strung chains or beads, or it can be a ribbon, cord, or strap, all of which may or may not be adorned with pearls, precious and semiprecious stones, rhinestones, or other decorative elements. Medallions, cameos, and pendants are commonly worn with these tight necklaces; brooches and tie -pins are best worn in those made of velvet or grosgrain.

The clasp by which this necklace is held around the neck is most often a classic jewelry clasp, more or less ornate. Connecting the two ends of the piece, it is generally closed at the nape of the neck, more rarely at the front. Textile chokers can also be attached with hook-and-loop fasteners; those of sufficient length are simply held by a knot. The leather choker is often fitted with a buckle.

History

Golden choker necklaces were crafted by Sumerian artisans around 2500 BC and according to curators from the Jewelry Museum of Fine Arts, chokers have been around for thousands of years, appearing in Ancient Egypt, in addition to the Sumerians in Mesopotamia. Often made with gold or lapis, the necklaces were thought to be protective and imbued with special powers.

Chokers were also later worn in the 1st century A.D. They are mentioned in the Talmud, book Shabbat, chapter 6 as a common women's accessory.

19th Century

Neck jewelry that is very similar to a choker was widespread in the Renaissance and the 19th century.

Ballerinas and the upper class in the late 19th century commonly wore certain types of chokers. However, at that same time, in the late 19th century, a plain, thin, red or black ribbon choker had ties to prostitution, as seen in Manet's Olympia (1861).

The 19th-century fashion for broad chokers reached its peak around 1900 in part due to Queen Alexandra of the United Kingdom wearing one to hide a small scar. Chokers were popular into the 1920s and again in the '40s as colliers de chien. In particular, the term dog collars or colliers de chien caught on, and these designs – incorporating luxe diamonds, pearls, lace, and velvet – could be seen as objects of the elite because the best kinds were custom-made to fit one's neck perfectly. In 1944 Life magazine stated that "a dowager fashion of 40 years ago" was being revived by young women, illustrating the trend with photos of models wearing the now vaguely rebellious "dog collars".

In Bavaria, chokers are often worn with traditional costumes, although in this case they are called a choker and are often a velvet ribbon with pearls or brooches.

Modern fashion

In today's fashion, the choker can also be found as a stretchy collar made of mesh or braided stretchy materials in various colors. Made of leather and with an O-ring attached to the front, chokers were initially frequently seen in BDSM and Gothic culture, until corresponding models also became established in mainstream fashion. 

In the modern era, chokers have been popular with some celebrities, including Gwyneth Paltrow, who wore one to the 1999 Academy Awards. Paris Hilton wore three inches of Swarovski around her neck in 2002. Rihanna has also been featured wearing chokers.

In the 2010s, the choker became a popular fashion among transgender women, due not only to its association with femininity but also because of its potential to hide the Adam's apple without performing a tracheal shave.

Material

In earlier times, the piece of jewelry often consisted of a single row of pearls or beads of the same size, often with a large gemstone. Today, chokers are available in a variety of colors, shapes, and materials.

Manufacturing

Chokers can be bought, but it is also very simple to make them because you can easily buy ribbon in a haberdashery: the choices of materials (satin, velvet, lace mainly), colors and widths are varied.

Decorations can be sewn on, such as flat beads, which have holes that make sewing easier. Other ornaments can also be hung on them, such as a Christian cross, among other examples.

Of course, all that remains is to sew the ribbon ties: before that, you have to put the ribbon around your neck to measure it correctly, so that in the end it doesn't float or tighten too much.

The fasteners can be a simple Velcro fastener, which can also be found in haberdashery stores, or small individual fasteners, similar to corset or bra fasteners. However, it seems that this type of fastener sold individually no longer exists.

Matching clothes

This necklace is enhanced by V- necks, boat necks or even with off-the-shoulder dresses. It can possibly be accompanied by a normal collar.

In literature

The fantastic plot of an undead woman guillotined in Paris during the Terror, whose head and life are held in place by a dark choker, has been dramatized by several short story writers. Weeping at the foot of the scaffold, the beautiful stranger is discovered by a young German who "brings her home, spends the night with her, and discovers her the next day dead in her bed before learning that had been decapitated the day before; the collar unfastened, the head rolls away ."

Washington Irving (1783-1859) imagined this story in "The Adventure of the German Student" published in the collection Tales of a Traveller (1824).

Petrus Borel (1809-1859) adapted it in Gottfried Wolfgang (1839, published in 1843).

Alexandre Dumas père (1802-1870) drew inspiration from it for the short story The Woman with the Velvet Necklace (1849). He brought the German author of fantastic tales E. TA Hoffmann to Paris during the revolutionary era. One evening, at the Théâtre de l'Opéra, he fell madly in love with the beautiful ballerina Arsène. Embodying a nymph, she was curiously adorned with a "strange" velvet necklace held by a "dismal diamond clasp" in the shape of a guillotine.

Sourced from Wikipedia

Note: Part of this article includes content generated by AI, which may contain mistakes that not in line with reality, please carefully identify.

Gold lunula

A Gold lunula is a crescent-shaped ornament, typically made of thin gold, that was popular during the Early Bronze Age, primarily in Ireland and other parts of Europe. These ornaments are thought to have been worn as necklaces or collars, and their distinctive crescent shape is the origin of their name, derived from the Latin word "lunula" meaning "little moon". 

Gold lunulae are characterized by their crescent or half-moon shape, crafted from thin, hammered gold. They often have expanded terminals that are twisted at an angle to the main body. Gold lunulae can be categorized into different styles, including Classical, Unaccomplished, and Provincial, based on their design and craftsmanship. 

The lunula is considered an iconic object of the Early Bronze Age, and their presence in archaeological contexts suggests their importance in the material culture of that period. These ornaments are primarily associated with the Early Bronze Age and are found in various regions of Europe, with the highest concentration in Ireland. While their exact purpose is not definitively known, they are generally believed to have been worn as decorative neck ornaments, potentially for ceremonial or ritualistic purposes. 

Overview

A gold lunula (pl. gold lunulae) was a distinctive type of late Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and—most often—early Bronze Age necklace, collar, or pectoral shaped like a crescent moon. Most are from Prehistoric Ireland. They are normally flat and thin, with roundish spatulate terminals that are often twisted to 45 to 90 degrees from the plane of the body. Gold lunulae fall into three distinct groups, termed Classical, Unaccomplished and Provincial by archaeologists. Most have been found in Ireland, but there are moderate numbers in other parts of Europe as well, from Great Britain to areas of the continent fairly near the Atlantic coasts. Although no lunula has been directly dated, from associations with other artefacts it is thought they were being made sometime in the period between 2400 and 2000 BC; a wooden box associated with one Irish find has recently given a radiocarbon dating range of 2460–2040 BC.

Of the more than a hundred gold lunulae known from Western Europe, more than eighty are from Ireland; it is possible they were all the work of a handful of expert goldsmiths, though the three groups are presumed to have had different creators. Several examples have a heavily crinkled appearance suggesting that they had been rolled up at some point. One Irish example, from Ballinagroun, has had its original Classical engraved decoration beaten over to erase it (not quite successfully), and then a new Unaccomplished scheme added. This and the fact that it had been folded over several times suggest that it had been in use for a long time before it was deposited. The first two examples illustrated show roughly the range of widths of the lowest part of the lunula that is found. Finds in graves are rare, perhaps suggesting they were regarded as clan or group property rather than personal possessions, and though some were found in bogs, perhaps suggesting ritual deposits, more were found on higher ground, often under standing stones.

Most gold lunulae have decorative patterns very much resembling beaker pottery from roughly the same period, using geometrical patterns made up of straight lines, with zig-zags and criss-cross patterns, and many different axes of symmetry. The curving edges of the lunula are generally followed by curving border-lines, often with decoration between them. The decoration is typically most dense at the tips and edges, and the broad lower central area is often undecorated between the borders. The decoration also resembles that on amber and jet spacer necklaces, which are thought to be slightly later in date.

Typology

Gold lunulae have been classified into groups as follows:

Classical, perhaps all made in Ireland, on average the widest, heaviest and also thinnest group. They are thin enough to be flexible when worn, and for the incised decoration to appear as relief on their underside. One aspect of the skill with which they are made is the variation in thickness across the piece, with the inner edge often three times thicker than the middle and the outer edge twice as thick.

Unaccomplished, similar in their range of design motifs, but narrower and less skillfully executed; a small number are undecorated. All Irish.

Provincial, so named as all except one example were found outside Ireland. Thicker and more rigid, they were probably all or mostly made outside Ireland. Their decoration can be more varied, and is divided into two groups: "dot-line", found in Scotland and Wales, and "linear", found in Cornwall, Belgium and north Germany, as well as the Irish example. The northern coast of France has both types. Punches, not otherwise used in lunulae, are used for the dots in "dot-line" types.

It used to be thought that these groups were produced in chronological sequence, but this is now much less certain, although the Ballinagroun lunula does show Unaccomplished decoration replacing Classical when it was reworked. In one large sample of 39 lunulae, the 19 Classical averaged 54 grams, with the 12 Unaccomplished averaging 40 g. Finds of Classical lunulae are concentrated in the north of Ireland, probably near the sources of gold, with Unaccomplished find spots mostly forming a "peripheral border" around this area. A few Classical lunulae have been found on the north Cornish coast and in southern Scotland.

Three Provincial lunulae were discovered in Kerivoa, Brittany (Kerivoa-en-Bourbriac, Côtes-d'Armor) in the remains of a box with some sheet gold and a rod of gold. The rod had its terminals hammered flat in the manner of the lunulae. From this it is thought that Lunulae were made by hammering a rod of gold flat so it became sheet-like and fitted the desired shape. Decoration was then applied by impressing designs with a stylus. The stylus used often leaves tell-tale impressions on the surface of the gold and it is thought that all the lunulae from Kerivoa, and another two from Saint-Potan, Brittany and Harlyn Bay, Cornwall were all made with the same tool. This suggests that all five lunulae were the work of one craftsperson and the contents of the Kerivoa box their tools of trade.

Lunulae were probably replaced as neck ornaments firstly by gold torcs, found from the Irish Middle Bronze Age, and then in the Late Bronze Age by the spectacular gorgets of thin ribbed gold, some with round discs at the side, of which 9 examples survive, 7 in the National Museum of Ireland.

The shape is sometimes found into the Iron Age, now also in silver, though the relation to the much earlier Bronze Age lunulae may be tenuous. A bronze example from the Welsh Llyn Cerrig Bach lake deposit (200 BC – 100 AD) has an embossed medallion with a triskele-based design in Celtic La Tène style, although it lacks the fastening at the back and has holes that are presumably for fixing it to a surface. It has been suggested it fitted around the pole of a chariot, or was attached to a shield, or worn by a statue. Two silver examples from Chão de Lamas, Coimbra in Portugal of about 200 BC should perhaps be considered as flattened and widened torcs; similar pieces are worn by figures in sculpture from the same culture.

Recent finds

The known corpus continues to expand slowly. The UK Portable Antiquities Scheme has recorded three incomplete finds in England in recent years, in 2008, 2012 and 2014, the last only missing one terminal. In 2009 the Coggalbeg hoard surfaced in Ireland; it had actually been discovered in 1945 when cutting peat, but kept hidden. The hoard, including a lunula of the Classical type, is now in the National Museum of Ireland.

The place of manufacture of the golden examples is Ireland (Blessington), but they have also been found in Germany (Butzbach and Schulenburg), France (Bourbriac), Poland, Scandinavia and Great Britain (Harlyn Cornwall, Llanllyfni Wales).  The gold lunula, which was found in the Pattensen district of Schulenburg, is the only gold lunula from Lower Saxony, while three copper lunulae have been found from another site, the copper hoard from Osnabrück in 2016. The Irish lunulae are usually interpreted as neck jewelry (Ross in County Westmeath). However, since they have never been found in a grave context, their use or how they were worn in Central and Northern Europe is unknown.

Portuguese lunulae are usually made of slate. They were probably worn with the points downwards, as suggested by the position of the usually two eyelets. Examples of this type have been recovered in the caves of Cascais and at the site of Trigache 2. The lunula from Cabeço da Arruda 2, which has five holes, does not provide any precise indication of how it was worn, nor does the multi-hole fragment from Pedra dos Mouros. The arrangement of the holes, however, suggests various possibilities. There are also unholemed finds from Praia das Maçãs and Trigache 3, as well as the golden lunula from Cabeceiras de Basto and lunulae that are clearly engraved on statue menhirs such as those at Portela de Mogos.

Sourced from Wikipedia

Note: Part of this article includes content generated by AI, which may contain mistakes that not in line with reality, please carefully identify.

Lanyard

A lanyard is a cord or strap, often worn around the neck, wrist, or attached to a belt, used to hold and display items like ID badges, keys, or small tools. Originally used by sailors and soldiers to secure items and prevent loss, lanyards are now widely used for identification, security, and convenience in various settings. 

The term "lanyard" in French meaning strap, and its use dates back to the 15th century in military and naval contexts. A lanyard is a length of cord, webbing, or strap that may serve any of various functions, which include a means of attachment, restraint, retrieval, activation, and deactivation. A lanyard is also a piece of rigging used to secure or lower objects aboard a ship. 

Lanyards primarily serve as a way to keep items easily accessible and visible, preventing loss or misplacement. They are typically made from durable materials like nylon, polyester, or woven fabric. Lanyards can be customized with logos, colors, and different attachments. They can also feature safety breakaways to prevent injury in case of snagging. 

Lanyard is convenience to carrying keys, whistles, small tools, or other items. Also used as part of a uniform to denote rank or qualification. Helping to identify authorized personnel and visitors. Displaying ID badges or access control cards, especially in workplaces, schools, and events. 

Origins

The earliest references to lanyards date from 15th century France: "lanière" was a thong or strap-on apparatus.

Bosun's pipe, marlinspike, and small knives typically had a lanyard consisting of a string loop tied together with a diamond knot. It helped secure the item and gave an extended grip over a small handle.

In the French military, lanyards were used to connect a pistol, sword, or whistle (for signaling) to a uniform semi-permanently. Lanyards were used by mounted cavalry on land and naval officers at sea. A pistol lanyard can be easily removed and reattached by the user, but will stay connected to the pistol whether it is drawn for use or it is placed into a holster for carrying.

In the military, lanyards of various colour combinations and braid patterns are worn on the shoulders of uniforms to denote the wearer's qualification or regimental affiliation. In horse regiments, lanyards were worn on the left, enabling a rider to pull a whistle from the left tunic pocket and maintain communication with his troop. Members of the British Royal Artillery wear a lanyard which originally held a key for adjusting the fuzes of explosive shells.

Functions

An attachment lanyard is a light duty tether worn around the neck, shoulder, wrist or attached to the belt as a sling to conveniently carry items such as keys or identification cards, or as a safety harness to prevent accidental dropping of valuable handheld items such as a camera.

A restraint lanyard is a safety lanyard used by construction workers, such as a lineman.

A retrieval lanyard is a nylon webbing lanyard used to raise and lower workers into confined spaces, such as storage tanks.

An activation lanyard is a lanyard used to fire an artillery piece or arm the fuze on a bomb leaving an aircraft.

A deactivation lanyard is a dead man's switch, where pulling a lanyard free will disable a dangerous device.

Styles and materials

The style, design or material used will vary depending on end-purpose of the lanyard. Lanyard materials include polyester, nylon, satin, silk, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), braided leather or braided paracord.

Common styles

Polyester imprinted lanyards

Nylon imprinted lanyards

Tube imprinted lanyards

Dye-sublimated lanyards or full-color lanyards

Accessory for electronics

Lanyards are widely used with small electronic devices such as cameras, MP3 players and USB flash drives to prevent loss or dropping. Electronics designed to take a lanyard usually have a small through-hole built into a corner or edge of the case or anchored to the frame of the device; the corresponding lanyard generally has a loop of thread on the end that is attached to that hole with a simple knot, usually a cow hitch. Some earphones incorporate the audio signal into the lanyard, meaning it doubles up as headphone cords as well. The Wii Remote wrist strap is a form of lanyard, keeping the device attached to a player's arm during the often vigorous movements involved in its use.

Badge or identification holder

Lanyards are commonly used to display badges, tickets or ID cards for identification where security is required, such as businesses, corporations, hospitals, prisons, conventions, trade fairs, and backstage passes used in the entertainment industry. Such lanyards are often made of braided or woven fabric or split with a clip attached to the end. A plastic pouch or badge holder with at least one clear side is attached to the lanyard with the person's name badge or ID card. Occasionally, small items like business cards, pens or tools can be placed behind the badge for easy access. Lanyards can also be used as keychains, particularly in situations where keys can easily be lost, such as gyms, public pools and communal showers.

In these cases, lanyards may be customised with the related name and/or logo of the event, business, or organisation. Lanyards can feature a variety of customisation techniques including screen-printing, Jacquard loom weaving, heat transfer, and offset printing.

Safety strap

Lanyards are also often attached to dead man's switches or "kill switches" on dangerous machinery, such as large industrial cutting or slicing machines, vehicles, jet-skis or trains, and exercise treadmills, so that if the operator suddenly becomes incapacitated, their fall will pull on the lanyard attached to their wrist, which will then pull the switch to immediately stop the machine or vehicle.

Some law enforcement officers and members of the military utilise specialised lanyards to keep sidearms from falling to the ground during missions.

Many ID card lanyards have a built-in feature known as a "breakaway" closure. Breakaway lanyards release when pulled or when pressure is applied. This prevents choking or hanging. Lanyards with a breakaway feature are most often used in hospitals and healthcare clinics, schools, nursing homes, child care facilities, and factories that require employees to operate machinery.

Lineman lanyards

Lineman lanyards are used by lineworker utility and other workers to prevent falls, although similar straps are also used recreationally by mountain climbers. This type of lanyard will have a section of heavy-duty nylon strapping attached to a metal ring or carabiner which tightens around an attachment point. The strap may be a fixed length or adjustable, and will attach to the wearer to support them against a fixed object or pole.

Uniform accessories

Certain lanyards are still worn on uniforms as decorations similar to an aiguillette or fourragère. Among these are the Orange Lanyard in the Military William Order of the Netherlands and the German Armed Forces Badge of Marksmanship.

A white lanyard has formed part of the uniform of Britain's Royal Artillery (RA) since the end of the 19th century. Originally a simple cord carrying a fuse key, the braided and whitened lanyard became the recognised distinction of a Gunner. The distinction was extended to women of the Auxiliary Territorial Service attached to RA units during World War II. Certain battalions descended from the Durham Light Infantry wore green lanyards to denote their past links with the regiment, whose uniform had a dark green facing colour from 1903 onwards.

Royal Naval Rating wear a white lanyard when dressed in No. 1 uniform, the origin of the lanyard was to carry a pouch of gunpowder for the cannon.

Sourced from Wikipedia

Note: Part of this article includes content generated by AI, which may contain mistakes that not in line with reality, please carefully identify.

Lei garland

A lei (pronounced "lay") garland is a wreath or garland, traditionally made of flowers, leaves, shells, or other materials, often worn around the neck or head, particularly in Polynesian and Hawaiian cultures. Leis are often given as gifts to express affection, welcome, or farewell, and are commonly associated with symbols of love, respect, and honor. 

A lei common in The Pacific Islands of Polynesia and also in Asia (Philippines). While commonly made of flowers, leis can also be crafted from leaves, shells, seeds, nuts, feathers, and even ribbon. More loosely defined, a lei is any series of objects strung together with the intent to be worn. Leis come in various styles and materials, with some being more traditional and others incorporating contemporary materials like satin or ribbon. 

Lei of various styles are given as gifts to honour people throughout the Pacific, being presented, for example, to visiting dignitaries, graduates, or to loved ones who are departing. Leis are symbols of affection, love, respect, and honor. In Hawaii, they are often presented with a kiss as a sign of hospitality and welcome.

Leis are deeply rooted in Polynesian and Hawaiian traditions. They are not just decorative items but carry significant cultural meaning, often used to express emotions and celebrate special occasions. Lei gained popularity in the United States due to the common practice of presenting one to arriving or leaving tourists in Hawaiʻi. Sampaguita leis are also used in the Philippines for religious reasons, typically worn to their Anito or religious statues.

Symbolism

A lei can be given to someone for a variety of reasons. Most commonly, these reasons include peace, love, honor, or friendship. Common events during which leis may be distributed include graduations, weddings, and school dances. Often the composition of a lei determines its significance. A lei made using a hala fruit, for instance, is said to be connected to love, desire, transition, and change.

Materials

A lei may be composed of a pattern or series of just about anything, but most commonly consists of fresh natural foliage such as flowers, leaves, vines, fern fronds, and seeds. The most commonly used flowers are those of plumerias, tuberose, carnations, orchids, and pikake, though maile leaves, ferns, and tī leaves are extremely popular as well as traditional among hula dancers. Other types of lei may include sea or land shells, fish teeth, bones, feathers, plastic flowers, fabric, paper (including origami and monetary bills), candy, or anything that can be strung together in a series or pattern and worn as a wreath or a necklace. The Hawaiian island of Niʻihau is famous for its lei made of tiny gem-like shells (pūpū).

Crafting

The eight most common methods of making lei are:

Haku: three-ply braid incorporating additional materials. A method of making a lei by using a base material, such as softened tree bark or long leaves, and braiding it while adding the decorative plant material into each wrap of the braid. Normally used for flowers and foliage with long pliable petioles or stems.

Hili: braid or plait with only one kind of material. Most commonly made from three or more strands of supple vine or fern braided together.

Hilo: twist, double helix, intertwine. A method of making a lei by twisting two strands together to form a "rope". The popular and simple lei lāʻī (tī leaf lei) is made using this method.

Hipuʻu / nipuʻu: a method of making a lei by knotting the stems of the decorative plant material and stringing the next stem through the knot. It requires a very long stem on the decorative material. Similar to a daisy chain.

Humu / humuhumu: sew to a backing, usually using a basting stitch. A method of making a lei by sewing the decorative material to a backing such as hala, laʻi, paper, or felt. Each successive row of lei material is overlapped on the previous to create a scale-like effect. Bougainvillea lei and feather hat lei often are made with this method.

Kui: pierce, piercing stitch. A method of making a lei by sewing or piercing the decorative material with a needle and stringing it onto a thread. This is probably the style with which most Westerners are familiar. This method is commonly used to string flowers such as plumeria, rose, carnation, etc.

Wili: wind, twist, crank, coil. A corkscrew-type twist, as found in a pig's tail and the seed pod of the wiliwili tree. A method of making a lei by winding fiber around successive short lengths of the decorative material. Sometimes base materials such as hala, laʻi, strands of raffia, or even strips of paper are used to make wrapping easier.

Haku mele: to braid a song. A song composed out of affection for an individual is considered a lei.

Lei may be open or closed, depending on circumstance.

These leis are traditionally constructed using natural foliage.

Historical context

Leis were originally worn by ancient Polynesians and some Asian people as part of custom. They were often used by Native Hawaiians to signify their ranks and royalty. They are also worn as a form of honor to each other and their gods. The religion of the Native Hawaiians as well as the hula custom is tied into the leis that they wore.

Native Hawaiians, who are Polynesian, brought the tradition of lei making and wearing with them to the Hawaiian islands when they arrived. On the first of every May, an event called Lei Day is celebrated to honor the act of lei making and the custom surrounding it.

Customs

There are many customs and protocols associated with the giving, receiving, wearing, storing, and disposing of lei. A story that originated during World War II tells of a hula dancer who dared to give a lei to a US soldier along with a kiss, leading it to become a tradition of lei distribution in modern times. To this day, leis remain a notable aspect of Hawaiian culture. Traditionalists give a lei by bowing slightly and raising it above the heart, allowing the recipient to take it, as raising the hands above another's head, or touching the face or head, is considered disrespectful.

By tradition, only open lei are given to a pregnant or nursing woman. If due to allergies or other reasons a person cannot wear a lei which has just been given (for instance a musician who would tangle the lei in their guitar strap), the lei is displayed in a place of honor, such as the musician's music stand or microphone stand. Lei should never be thrown away casually, or tossed into the trash.

Traditionally they should be returned to the place they were gathered, or if that is not possible, they should be returned to the earth by hanging in a tree, burying, or burning. A lei represents love, and to throw one away represents throwing away the love of the giver. Many types of lei can be left in a window to dry, allowing the natural fragrance to fill the room. This technique is often used in cars as well.

Polynesia

In Polynesian cultures, a lei is something that is created by someone and given to another with the intent to decorate that person for an emotional reason—usually as a sign of affection. Common reasons include greeting, farewell, affection or love, friendship, appreciation, congratulation, recognition, or to otherwise draw attention to the recipient. In Samoa, similar garlands fashioned of entire flowers, buds, seeds, nuts, plant fibers, leaves, ferns, seashells, or flower petals are called "asoa" or "ula", while single flowers or clusters worn in the hair or on the ear are called sei. In Tahiti such garlands are referred to as "hei" and in the Cook Islands they are called an "ei".

Tongans are known for creating unique "kahoa" leis made of chains of flat, crescent or triangular arrangements made of flower petals and leaves sewn onto a leaf or cloth backing. In Niue the iconic lei is the kahoa hihi which made from strings of tiny, distinctively yellow snail (hihi) shells. Many modern Polynesian celebrations include the giving and receiving of leis in various forms, including recent adaptations of the flower/plant lei in which candy, folded currency bills, rolls of coinage, and even spam musubi are tied into garlands. "Non-traditional" materials such as cloth ribbon, sequins, cellophane wrap, curling ribbon, and yarn are often used to fashion leis in various forms today.

Hawaiʻi

Among residents of Hawaiʻi, the most popular occasions at which nā lei can be found are birthdays, graduations, weddings, funerals, retirement parties, and bridal showers. It is not uncommon for a high school or college graduate to be seen wearing so many nā lei that they reach their ears or higher.

On May 1 each year, Hawaiians celebrate "Lei Day", first conceived in 1927 by poet Don Blanding. At the time, Blanding was employed by the Honolulu Star Bulletin, and he shared his idea with columnist Grace Tower Warren, who came up with the phrase, "May Day is Lei Day". The Hawaiian song, "May Day is Lei Day in Hawaii" was composed in 1927 by Ruth and Leonard "Red" Hawk.

At the 81st Annual Mayor's Lei Day Celebration at Kapiʻolani Park in 2008, Honolulu set the record for the World's Longest Lei. Unofficially, the lei measured 5,336 feet (1,626 m) in length, more than a mile.

Notable Hawaiian artisans of feather lei (lei hulu) making include Mary Louise Kekuewa, and Johanna Drew Cluney.

All of the major islands celebrate Lei Day, and each island is symbolized in pageantry by a specific type of lei and a color.

Hawaiʻi: red, ʻōhiʻa lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha)

Maui: pink, lokelani (Rosa damascena)

Kahoʻolawe: gray or silver, hinahina (Heliotropium anomalum var. argentum)

Lānaʻi: orange, kaunaʻoa (Cuscuta sandwichiana)

Oʻahu: yellow or gold, ʻilima (Sida fallax)

Molokaʻi: green, kukui (Aleurites moluccanus)

Kauaʻi: purple, mokihana (Melicope anisata)

Niʻihau: white, pūpū o Niʻihau (Niʻihau shells)

Philippines

The old custom for welcoming guests in the Philippines is by giving a flower necklace made of sampaguita, the country's national flower. However, in the recent years, more affordable options has emerged. This became popular over time as fresh flowers are hard to maintain especially during long events. One of the popular modern option are rosette leis, it is made of Brocade cut into necklace of various designs and a center piece flower petals made of satin ribbon.

Sourced from Wikipedia

Note: Part of this article includes content generated by AI, which may contain mistakes that not in line with reality, please carefully identify.

Mangalasutra

A mangala sutra (Sanskrit: मङ्गलसूत्रम्, romanized: maṅgalasūtram), or tali (ISO: tāḷi), is a necklace worn by married Hindu women. During a Hindu wedding, the mangalasutra is tied around the neck of the bride by the groom. The ceremony is known as the Mangalya Dharanam (Sanskrit for 'wearing the auspicious').

A mangalsutra is a sacred necklace worn by married Hindu women in India, symbolizing their marital status and commitment to their husbands. It's considered a symbol of love, commitment, and divine blessings. The word "mangalsutra" is derived from Sanskrit, where "mangal" means auspicious and "sutra" means thread. Mangalsutras are sometimes passed down through generations as cherished family heirlooms, connecting mothers, daughters, and granddaughters. 

The mangalsutra is tied around the bride's neck by the groom during the Hindu wedding ceremony, signifying their union. It represents the eternal bond between husband and wife, and is typically worn throughout the woman's lifetime. The mangalsutra is believed to protect the husband and family, and it's also seen as a source of divine blessings. 

Mangalsutras vary in design and materials across different regions and communities in India. Traditionally, they consist of black beads strung on a yellow or black thread, often with a gold pendant. Black beads are believed to absorb and deflect negative energy, providing protection to the wearer and her family. 

Mangalasutra literally means "an auspicious thread" that is knotted around the bride's neck and is worn by her for the remainder of her marriage. It is usually a necklace with black beads strung from a black or yellow thread prepared with turmeric. Sometimes gold, white or red beads are also added to the mangala sutra, depending on regional variation. The necklace serves as a visual marker of marital status.

The tying of the mangala sutra is a common practice in India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. The idea of sacred thread existed for centuries, even going back to the Sangam period. But the nature of these auspicious threads has evolved over time and varies widely according to various communities. While traditional designs are still prevalent, modern variations of mangalsutras incorporate diamonds and other precious stones. 

History

The mangala sutra's origin dates back to the 4th century BCE, referred to as the mangalya sutra in the Lalita Sahasranama, and the Purananuru, a Sangam text, mentions a sacred marriage tali upon a woman's neck. It also finds a mention in the 6th century CE as a single yellow thread that was tied around the bride for protection from other men and evil spirits.

The concept of mangala sutra has evolved over centuries, and has become an integral part of marriages among several Indian communities. Historian of Indian jewellery, Usha Balakrishnan, explains that the mangala sutra had previously referred to a literal thread as opposed to an item of jewellery.

The significance of the mangala sutra is described by Adi Shankara in the Soundarya Lahari. According to Hindu tradition, the mangala sutra is worn for the long life of the husband. As told by religious customs and social expectations, married women should wear mangala sutra throughout their life as it is believed that the practice enhances the well-being of her husband. Bridal jewellery in ancient times also worked as a financial security against old age and widowhood, even though women did have property rights.

Designs

Mangala sutras are made in a variety of designs. The common ones are the Lakshmi tali worn by the Telugus of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, which contain images of Lakshmi, the goddess of auspiciousness, ela tali or minnu worn by the Malayalees of Kerala, and the Kumbha tali worn by the Tamils of the Kshatriya caste in Tamil Nadu. The design is chosen by the groom's family according to prevalent customs. Gujaratis and Marwaris from Rajasthan often use a diamond pendant in a gold chain which is merely ornamental in nature and is not a substitute to the mangala sutra in the traditional sense. Marathis of Maharashtra wear a pendant of two vati ornaments shaped like tiny bowls. The mangala sutra of the Kannadigas of Karnataka is similar to that of the Marathis, except that it usually has one vati. Nowadays many fashion-conscious families opt for lighter versions, with a single vati or a more contemporary style.

Konkani people (Goans, Mangaloreans, Bombay East Indians and others, including Hindus) wear three necklaces around their necks, referred to as dharemani or muhurtmani (big golden bead), mangalasutra with one or two gold discs and kasitali with gold and coral beads. In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, the two coin-sized gold discs are separated by 2-3 beads of different kinds. By tradition, one disc comes from the bride's family and another from the groom's side.

Non-Hindu religious groups such as Syrian Christians also wear mangala sutra, but with a cross on it.

Meaning

The significance of the mangalsutra was reiterated by Adi Shankara in his famous book Soundarya Lahari. According to Hindu tradition, the mangasutra is worn throughout the long life of the husband. In accordance with religious customs and social expectations, married women are expected to wear the mangalsutra throughout their lives, as this practice is believed to enhance the well-being of their husbands. In ancient times, bridal jewelry also served as a financial guarantee against old age and widowhood, even though women had property rights.

According to tradition, the mangalsutra symbolizes the inseparable bond between a husband and wife. During the wedding ceremony, the groom, while performing the ritual act of tying the ties of the mangalsutra around the bride's neck, pronounces, "Long may you live wearing this sacred mangalsutra, you who are the reason for my existence."

Married women are required to wear the Mangalsutra throughout their lives, as it is believed to improve the well-being of their husbands and family, but it cannot be displayed in public. The Mangalsutra is also believed to protect the marriage from all harm. A Hindu marriage is therefore incomplete without the Mangalsutra.

Furthermore, the three knots symbolize three different aspects of a married woman: the first knot represents obedience to her husband, the second to her parents, and the third represents her respect for her God.

Sourced from Wikipedia

Note: Part of this article includes content generated by AI, which may contain mistakes that not in line with reality, please carefully identify.

Necklace of Harmonia

The Necklace of Harmonia, also called the Necklace of Eriphyle, is a cursed object from Greek mythology, notorious for bringing misfortune to its owners and their descendants. It was crafted by the god Hephaestus and given as a wedding gift to Harmonia, the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, when she married Cadmus, King of Thebes. The necklace is often depicted as being made of gold and jewels, with two serpents forming a clasp with their open mouths. 

The Necklace of Harmonia is cursed to bring bad luck and misfortune to anyone who possesses it, regardless of their status or lineage. The necklace symbolizes the destructive power of jealousy and the consequences of divine wrath. 

Hephaestus, the god of the forge, created the necklace as a gift for Harmonia and Cadmus' wedding. However, he also cursed it due to his jealousy over Aphrodite's infidelity. The curse of the necklace is said to have affected many of Harmonia's descendants, including Jocasta, who unknowingly married her son Oedipus, leading to tragedy. 

Origins

There are multiple stories concerning the creation of the necklace and origin of its curse. The most common version names Hephaestus, the god of smithing, as its creator. Hephaestus was married to Aphrodite, who regularly had sexual trysts with Ares behind her husband's back. When Hephaestus was informed of his wife's actions by Helios, he was enraged and vowed to curse any children born of the affair. Aphrodite and Ares had multiple children together, including Harmonia, goddess of harmony and concord. Harmonia was betrothed to Cadmus, the legendary founder of Thebes. Upon hearing of the engagement, Hephaestus attended the wedding and gave Harmonia an exquisite necklace (ὅρμος) and peplos (robe) as a wedding gift.

In other versions of the myth, the necklace was instead gifted by Athena, Aphrodite, or Cadmus's sister Europa, who had received it as a gift from Zeus. In Hyginus' Fabulae, both Hera and Hephaestus plotted together to curse the gifts, and the peplos was the actual source of the curse ("a robe dipped in crimes").

Description

No definitive, undisputed description of the necklace exists, however, it was undoubtedly made of gold. Pausanias debates the appearance of the necklace in his Description of Greece, and believed it was likely solid gold, as Homer mentioned in his Odyssey ("who took precious gold as the price of the life of her own lord"). However, he states it may have also been a golden necklace inlaid with precious stones, possibly amber.

Other authors claimed the necklace was gold and covered with jewels. Statius described the necklace as being gold with green emeralds, and covered in images of misfortune:

"There forms he a circlet of emeralds glowing with a hidden fire, and adamant stamped with figures of ill omen, and Gorgon eyes, and embers left on the Sicilian anvil from the last shaping of a thunderbolt, and the crests that shine on the heads of green serpents; then the dolorous fruit of the Hesperides and the dread gold of Phrixus' fleece; then divers plagues doth he intertwine, and the king adder snatched from Tisiphone's grisly locks, and the wicked power that commends the girdle; all these he cunningly anoints about with lunar foam, and pours over them the poison of delight."

In his Dionysaica, Nonnus described the necklace as being made of two gold snakes with ruby eyes, their heads joined in the center by a golden eagle with four wings that they held in their mouths. Each of the eagle's wings was covered with a different stone: one was covered in yellow jasper, one in moonstones, one in pearls, and one in agates. The entire necklace was covered with emeralds.

A necklace claimed to be the Necklace of Harmonia was kept in a temple to Adonis and Aphrodite in Amathus. It was gold inlaid with green jewels or stones.

Cursed owners

Harmonia, Cadmus, and their children

Years after their marriage and receiving the necklace, Harmonia and Cadmus were both transformed into serpents, possibly as a consequence of Cadmus slaying Ares's sacred dragon. However, the necklace's role in their misfortune is debatable due to the couple being blessed by the gods, Harmonia being a goddess, and the couple's ascension to Elysium after their transformation.

Together, Cadmus and Harmonia had five children: Semele, Ino, Polydorus, Autonoë, and Agave. Each child experienced misfortune. Semele became Zeus's mistress and became pregnant with Dionysus. However, Zeus's wife Hera discovered the affair; she tricked Semele into asking Zeus to prove his godhood by revealing his true form to her, and she was incinerated. When Dionysus was born, he was placed into the care of Ino, Agave, and Autonoë. However, Hera's jealousy persisted. She struck Ino and her husband Athmas with madness; Athmas hunted down and killed their son Learchus like a deer and Ino boiled their son Melicertes alive before leaping into the ocean with his body, transforming into Leucothea. When Dionysus returned to Thebes as an adult, Autonoë and Agave were swept up in the Bacchic frenzy and festivals he inspired. During the frenzy, the sisters tore Agave's son Pentheus to pieces, and Agave fled Thebes in shame. Later, Autonoë's son Actaeon was transformed into a stag and torn to pieces by his own hounds for glimpsing Artemis naked. Both Polydorus and his son, Labdacus, died young. In his Library, Apollodorus claimed that Polydorus and Labdacus were torn apart in the Bacchic frenzy alongside Pentheus.

Jocasta, Oedipus, and their children

The necklace eventually passed to Jocasta, granddaughter of Pentheus. Jocasta unknowingly married her son, Oedipus, and the couple had four children together: Antigone, Eteocles, Polynices and Ismene. When Oedipus's identity was discovered, Jocasta committed suicide by hanging and Oedipus gouged his eyes out and exiled himself from Thebes. Once Oedipus vacated the throne, Eteocles and Polynices became embroiled in a civil war called the Seven Against Thebes for control of the kingdom. Eventually, both brothers killed each other during battle and Antigone was killed in retaliation for her attempts to bury Polynices's body. These events are described in Sophocles' "Three Theban Plays": Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone. 

Eriphyle and Alcmaeon

After Jocasta's death, the necklace and peplos were then inherited by Polynices. Polynices used the necklace to bribe Eriphyle into persuading her husband Amphiaraus to partake in the doomed Seven Against Thebes war effort, aimed at placing Polynices on the Theban throne. She also received the peplos in exchange for persuading her sons Alcmaeon and Amphilochus to join the expedition as well. However, Amphiaraus discovered the plot and instructed his sons that, if he did not survive, they needed to avenge him by killing their mother. When news of Amphiaraus's death reached Alcmaeon, he killed Eriphyle. The necklace and peplos then came into his possession, but he left them behind with his first wife Alphesiboea, daughter of King Phegeus, during his journey to free himself from his mother's vengeful ghost.

Alcmaeon eventually married Callirrhoe, daughter of the river god Achelous. Callirrhoe coveted the necklace and peplos, and demanded that he retrieve them for her. Alcmaeon obliged, and returned to Psophis, where he lied and told Phegeus that he needed the items in order to purify them. Phegeus obliged and handed them over, but instructed his sons Pronous and Agenor to ambush and kill Alcmaeon so that he could take them back. When Callirrhoe learned of the murder, she instructed her sons by Alcmaeon, Amphoterus, and Acarnan, to avenge their father. On their journey, they killed Pronous, Agenor, and Phegeus, and retrieved both the necklace and peplos, which they decided to dedicate to the temple of Athena at Delphi.

Phayllus and his mistress

The necklace stayed at the temple of Athena at Delphi until a Phayllus, a Phocian general in the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC), stole the necklace from the temple to appease his mistress, Ariston's wife, who coveted it. After she had worn it for a time, her son was seized with madness and set fire to the house, and the entire family perished inside.

Sourced from Wikipedia

Note: Part of this article includes content generated by AI, which may contain mistakes that not in line with reality, please carefully identify.